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...tween location estimates from different tasks or participant groups, measure the fidelity between cognitive maps and actual locations, and provide parameters for psychological process models. The authors detail the formal similarity between uniand bidimensional regression, provide computational methods and a new index of spatial distortion, outline the advantages of bidimensional regression over other techniques, and provide guidelines for its use. The authors conclude by describing substantive areas in psychology for which the method would be appropriate and uniquely illuminating. Ever since Tolman (1948) introduced it, the construct of a cognitive map has played an important role in theorizing about psychological processes. A cognitive map is a representation of the elements of an environment and their spatial interrelations. The construct has appeared in literature as far ranging as adult and developmental human cognition, animal cognition, neuroscience, behavioral geography, behavioral ecology, and human factors in virtual reality (see Fagot, 2000; Kitchin & Blades, 2002; Kitchin & Freundschuh, 2000; Newcombe & Huttenlocher, 2000, for comprehensive reviews). Though the nature and role of co...

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...r which the method would be appropriate and uniquely illuminating. Ever since Tolman (1948) introduced it, the construct of a cognitive map has played an important role in theorizing about psychological processes. A cognitive map is a representation of the elements of an environment and their spatial interrelations. The construct has appeared in literature as far ranging as adult and developmental human cognition, animal cognition, neuroscience, behavioral geography, behavioral ecology, and human factors in virtual reality (see Fagot, 2000; Kitchin & Blades, 2002; Kitchin & Freundschuh, 2000; Newcombe & Huttenlocher, 2000, for comprehensive reviews). Though the nature and role of cognitive maps may take on subtly different meanings in each of these literatures, there is a general consensus that these representations play a functional role in many kinds of real-world spatial tasks for both animals and humans. For animals, spatial representations must underlie foraging and food caching, migration, some predatory behaviors, territorial patrolling, and so on. For humans, cognitive maps are believed to influence behaviors as diverse as navigating through familiar environments and learning novel ones, giving directi...

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...lude by describing substantive areas in psychology for which the method would be appropriate and uniquely illuminating. Ever since Tolman (1948) introduced it, the construct of a cognitive map has played an important role in theorizing about psychological processes. A cognitive map is a representation of the elements of an environment and their spatial interrelations. The construct has appeared in literature as far ranging as adult and developmental human cognition, animal cognition, neuroscience, behavioral geography, behavioral ecology, and human factors in virtual reality (see Fagot, 2000; Kitchin & Blades, 2002; Kitchin & Freundschuh, 2000; Newcombe & Huttenlocher, 2000, for comprehensive reviews). Though the nature and role of cognitive maps may take on subtly different meanings in each of these literatures, there is a general consensus that these representations play a functional role in many kinds of real-world spatial tasks for both animals and humans. For animals, spatial representations must underlie foraging and food caching, migration, some predatory behaviors, territorial patrolling, and so on. For humans, cognitive maps are believed to influence behaviors as diverse as navigating through f...

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...o the real world, is essential to understanding how people and animals represent, reason about, and function in large- and smallscale spatial environments. One of the main tools for assessing the configural relations between cognitive and actual maps is the bidimensional regression methodology introduced to the geography literature by Tobler (1965, 1966, 1994). Tobler developed bidimensional regression as a solution to the general problem of map comparison; the methodology is virtually unknown in the psychological literature (for examples from behavioral geography, see Kitchin & Blades, 2002; Lloyd, 1989; Lloyd & Heivly, 1987; Nakaya, 1997; and WakabayaAlinda Friedman and Bernd Kohler, Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Additional materials for this article are available on the Web at dx.doi.org/10.1037/1082.989X.8.4.468.supp. This research was supported by a grant to Alinda Friedman from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. We are grateful to Rachel Keaschuk for collecting the data; to Robert Kitchin, Robert Lloyd, and Waldo Tobler for helpful correspondence; to Richard Darlington and Nora Newcombe for their comments and su...

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...as diverse as navigating through familiar environments and learning novel ones, giving directions, and making decisions about where to live, work, shop, or spend a holiday. Thus, describing the nature of cognitive maps, and assessing their accuracy with respect to the real world, is essential to understanding how people and animals represent, reason about, and function in large- and smallscale spatial environments. One of the main tools for assessing the configural relations between cognitive and actual maps is the bidimensional regression methodology introduced to the geography literature by Tobler (1965, 1966, 1994). Tobler developed bidimensional regression as a solution to the general problem of map comparison; the methodology is virtually unknown in the psychological literature (for examples from behavioral geography, see Kitchin & Blades, 2002; Lloyd, 1989; Lloyd & Heivly, 1987; Nakaya, 1997; and WakabayaAlinda Friedman and Bernd Kohler, Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Additional materials for this article are available on the Web at dx.doi.org/10.1037/1082.989X.8.4.468.supp. This research was supported by a grant to Alinda Friedman from the Na...

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...rld, is essential to understanding how people and animals represent, reason about, and function in large- and smallscale spatial environments. One of the main tools for assessing the configural relations between cognitive and actual maps is the bidimensional regression methodology introduced to the geography literature by Tobler (1965, 1966, 1994). Tobler developed bidimensional regression as a solution to the general problem of map comparison; the methodology is virtually unknown in the psychological literature (for examples from behavioral geography, see Kitchin & Blades, 2002; Lloyd, 1989; Lloyd & Heivly, 1987; Nakaya, 1997; and WakabayaAlinda Friedman and Bernd Kohler, Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Additional materials for this article are available on the Web at dx.doi.org/10.1037/1082.989X.8.4.468.supp. This research was supported by a grant to Alinda Friedman from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. We are grateful to Rachel Keaschuk for collecting the data; to Robert Kitchin, Robert Lloyd, and Waldo Tobler for helpful correspondence; to Richard Darlington and Nora Newcombe for their comments and suggestions; and to Don ...

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... authors conclude by describing substantive areas in psychology for which the method would be appropriate and uniquely illuminating. Ever since Tolman (1948) introduced it, the construct of a cognitive map has played an important role in theorizing about psychological processes. A cognitive map is a representation of the elements of an environment and their spatial interrelations. The construct has appeared in literature as far ranging as adult and developmental human cognition, animal cognition, neuroscience, behavioral geography, behavioral ecology, and human factors in virtual reality (see Fagot, 2000; Kitchin & Blades, 2002; Kitchin & Freundschuh, 2000; Newcombe & Huttenlocher, 2000, for comprehensive reviews). Though the nature and role of cognitive maps may take on subtly different meanings in each of these literatures, there is a general consensus that these representations play a functional role in many kinds of real-world spatial tasks for both animals and humans. For animals, spatial representations must underlie foraging and food caching, migration, some predatory behaviors, territorial patrolling, and so on. For humans, cognitive maps are believed to influence behaviors as diverse...

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...antive areas in psychology for which the method would be appropriate and uniquely illuminating. Ever since Tolman (1948) introduced it, the construct of a cognitive map has played an important role in theorizing about psychological processes. A cognitive map is a representation of the elements of an environment and their spatial interrelations. The construct has appeared in literature as far ranging as adult and developmental human cognition, animal cognition, neuroscience, behavioral geography, behavioral ecology, and human factors in virtual reality (see Fagot, 2000; Kitchin & Blades, 2002; Kitchin & Freundschuh, 2000; Newcombe & Huttenlocher, 2000, for comprehensive reviews). Though the nature and role of cognitive maps may take on subtly different meanings in each of these literatures, there is a general consensus that these representations play a functional role in many kinds of real-world spatial tasks for both animals and humans. For animals, spatial representations must underlie foraging and food caching, migration, some predatory behaviors, territorial patrolling, and so on. For humans, cognitive maps are believed to influence behaviors as diverse as navigating through familiar environments and lear...

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...nderstanding how people and animals represent, reason about, and function in large- and smallscale spatial environments. One of the main tools for assessing the configural relations between cognitive and actual maps is the bidimensional regression methodology introduced to the geography literature by Tobler (1965, 1966, 1994). Tobler developed bidimensional regression as a solution to the general problem of map comparison; the methodology is virtually unknown in the psychological literature (for examples from behavioral geography, see Kitchin & Blades, 2002; Lloyd, 1989; Lloyd & Heivly, 1987; Nakaya, 1997; and WakabayaAlinda Friedman and Bernd Kohler, Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Additional materials for this article are available on the Web at dx.doi.org/10.1037/1082.989X.8.4.468.supp. This research was supported by a grant to Alinda Friedman from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. We are grateful to Rachel Keaschuk for collecting the data; to Robert Kitchin, Robert Lloyd, and Waldo Tobler for helpful correspondence; to Richard Darlington and Nora Newcombe for their comments and suggestions; and to Don Heth for his i...