Abstract

sagepub.com The mathematics achievement gap between low- and middle-income children in the United States is wide and persistent. Although low-income children have made achievement gains in recent years, so have their middle-income peers, leaving the gap virtually unchanged at the end of eighth grade (National Center for Education Statis-tics, 2009). Even more disturbing, achievement disparities between these groups have been documented before chil-dren enter school (Duncan et al., 2007; Lee & Burkham, 2002; National Research Council, 2009). A disproportion-ate number of children from low-income families come to kindergarten without the skills necessary for success in for-mal mathematics and are overrepresented in the population of students with diagnosed mathematics difficulties and disabilities (Jordan & Levine, 2009). Poor mathematics achievement can have far-reaching consequences. Low-income students are likely to be less prepared than middle-income students in the important science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines for which mathematics is a prerequisite. Mathematics profi-ciency has long been seen as a gateway to highly sought-after professions in STEM (National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008). Until recently, early intervention for children in mathe-matics has been overlooked, especially with the emphasis on literacy in kindergarten and early elementary school