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....’ A major increase in publications related to this concept quickly followed with discussion about how exactly complementarity should be defined and applied (Belbin, 1993, 1995; Pressey et al., 1993; =-=Colwell & Coddington, 1994-=-; Pearce & Moran, 1994; Underhill, 1994; Williams et al., 1996; Faith & Walker, 1996a; Csuti et al., 1997; Prendergast, Quinn & Lawton, 1999). Overall, it was accepted that complementarity had major a...

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... their own focus, but none provides a full upto-date review of the core concepts of SCP. Presently, threats to biodiversity remain. Habitat loss is continuing in many countries (Cowling et al., 2003; =-=Fahrig, 2003-=-; Polasky et al., 2005) and global warming appears to be progressing rapidly (Araujo et al., 2004; Parmesan, 2006; UNEP, 2011). Following the resolution by the Convention on Biological Diversity to al...

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... . . . . . . . 460 I. INTRODUCTION Systematic conservation planning (SCP) is widely considered as the most influential paradigm to identify and bring under protection priority areas for conservation (=-=Margules & Pressey, 2000-=-; Knight, Cowling & Campbell, 2006a; Pressey & Bottrill, 2009; Knight et al., 2010; Sarkar & Illoldi-Rangel, 2010). It concerns the prioritisation of sites for their biodiversity value and the partici...

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...pact on the achievement of targets (Margules & Pressey, 2000; Pressey, Cowling & Rouget, 2003; Margules & Sarkar, 2007). Vulnerability is a concept also used in the literature of risk and hazard (see =-=Cutter, 1996-=-, for review). Vulnerability has been used to define hotspots, which Myers (1988, 1990) and Myers et al. (2000) defined as localities with exceptional concentrations of species and levels of endemism,...

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...es-area relationships, the ‘single large or several small’ debate, species distribution patterns in naturally fragmented habitat, and metapopulation dynamics (MacArthur & Wilson, 1963; Diamond, 1975; =-=Connor & McCoy, 1979-=-; Saunders et al., 1991; Rebelo & Siegfried, 1992; Justus & Sarkar, 2002; McCarthy et al., 2011). (3) We define the key question of spatial conservation prioritisation inside SCP as follows: how to cr...

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...such as island biogeography theory, species-area relationships, the ‘single large or several small’ debate, species distribution patterns in naturally fragmented habitat, and metapopulation dynamics (=-=MacArthur & Wilson, 1963-=-; Diamond, 1975; Connor & McCoy, 1979; Saunders et al., 1991; Rebelo & Siegfried, 1992; Justus & Sarkar, 2002; McCarthy et al., 2011). (3) We define the key question of spatial conservation prioritisa...

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...tive in designing a reserve system is to try to ensure that the reserves are sufficient in number and size and appropriately distributed over the landscape in terms of geography and ecosystem type.’ (=-=Franklin, 1993-=-, p. 203). (Note the use of sufficiency here is close to the sense of adequacy.) Later, Noss (1990, p. 356) has sought a definition for comprehensive coverage of biodiversity: ‘A definition of biodive...

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... extinction curves. Island biogeography theory influenced conservation via discussions about how the size and other features of conservation areas (or ‘islands’) influence the persistence of species (=-=Diamond, 1975-=-; Simberloff & Abele, 1976; Margules, Higgs & Rafe, 1982). During the 1970–1980s the importance of area size and shape, extinction and colonisation rates, and species-area relationships were much disc...

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..., Wright & Sheil, 2009; Eklund et al., 2011). The concept of management effectiveness (how well conservation areas are managed) has also evolved from the concept of effectiveness (Chape et al., 2005; =-=Hockings et al., 2006-=-; CantuSalazar & Gaston, 2010). Knight et al. (2010) describes in detail human and social factors which influence the effectiveness of translating maps of priorities or opportunities into action. As K...

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...he 11th stage of SCP. The most frequent application of SCP is a one-off project, but various stages of SCP may be repeated, for example, following major changes in information or available resources (=-=Brooks et al., 2006-=-; Knight et al., 2006b; Ferrier & Wintle, 2009). SCP frequently involves identifying a reserve network that best satisfies a number of principles: comprehensiveness, representativeness, adequacy, effi...

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...nally, for conservation to be successful, biodiversity should be maintained in the reserve network and across the landscape. This may require habitat management, maintenance, and restoration actions (=-=Hobbs & Norton, 1996-=-; Dobson, Bradshaw & Baker, 1997; Crossman & Bryan, 2006). Maintaining and monitoring of conservation areas is the 11th stage of SCP. The most frequent application of SCP is a one-off project, but var...

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...oncerns selection of complementary areas to avoid duplication of effort, and threat and vulnerability, which concern the persistence of biodiversity features in focal areas (Margules & Pressey, 2000; =-=Cabeza & Moilanen, 2001-=-; Sarkar et al., 2006; Moilanen, 2008). Complementarity is often cited as the defining concept of SCP (Williams, 2001; Funk & Richardson, 2002; Justus & Sarkar, 2002; Margules & Sarkar, 2007; Moilanen...

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...ons in economics and engineering. Efficiency in the context of spatial prioritisation frequently implies cost efficiency, which can be defined as the ratio of benefits to costs (Pearce & Moran, 1994; =-=Ando et al., 1998-=-; Juutinen & Mönkkönen, 2004; Naidoo et al., 2006; Wilson et al., 2009). Efficiency is also called economy in parts of the literature (Sarkar et al., 2006; Margules & Sarkar, 2007). The use of optim...

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...et al., 2007; Brooks, Wright & Sheil, 2009; Eklund et al., 2011). The concept of management effectiveness (how well conservation areas are managed) has also evolved from the concept of effectiveness (=-=Chape et al., 2005-=-; Hockings et al., 2006; CantuSalazar & Gaston, 2010). Knight et al. (2010) describes in detail human and social factors which influence the effectiveness of translating maps of priorities or opportun...

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...e field of applied mathematics are frequently applied. So-called reserve selection or site selection algorithms are optimisation methods that are used to identify the ‘best possible’ reserve network (=-=Csuti et al., 1997-=-; Pressey et al., 1997). Conservation planning software such as Marxan (Ball & Possingham, 2000) and ConsNet (Ciarleglio, Barnes & Sarkar, 2009) implement optimisation algorithms while C-Plan (Pressey...

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...ion to find efficient protected area solutions is motivated by a belief that such solutions have relatively higher social acceptability and therefore stand a greater chance of being implemented (e.g. =-=Fernandes et al., 2005-=-; Game et al., 2011). Biological Reviews 88 (2013) 443–464 © 2012 The Authors. Biological Reviews © 2012 Cambridge Philosophical Society Concepts of systematic conservation planning 455 Early on, cons...

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...rior studies each have their own focus, but none provides a full upto-date review of the core concepts of SCP. Presently, threats to biodiversity remain. Habitat loss is continuing in many countries (=-=Cowling et al., 2003-=-; Fahrig, 2003; Polasky et al., 2005) and global warming appears to be progressing rapidly (Araujo et al., 2004; Parmesan, 2006; UNEP, 2011). Following the resolution by the Convention on Biological D...

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... for all features cannot be met within constraints. In this case, efficiency is higher when more features have targets met within the maximum number, total extent or total cost of conservation areas (=-=Camm et al., 1996-=-; Csuti et al., 1997; Pressey et al., 1997; Cameron, Williams & Mitchell, 2008). Cost is frequently related to the area of land or sea protected, and may include purchase and management costs, or the ...

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...on about how exactly complementarity should be defined and applied (Belbin, 1993, 1995; Pressey et al., 1993; Colwell & Coddington, 1994; Pearce & Moran, 1994; Underhill, 1994; Williams et al., 1996; =-=Faith & Walker, 1996-=-a; Csuti et al., 1997; Prendergast, Quinn & Lawton, 1999). Overall, it was accepted that complementarity had major advantages compared to, for example, using species richness scores as the basis for c...

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...dequacy of a reserve system by assessing the viability of key species. Ecological and evolutionary processes that support persistence of biodiversity should be accounted for when addressing adequacy (=-=Cowling et al., 1999-=-, 2003; Klein et al., 2009; Linke et al., 2011). As a criticism to considerations of conservation area size, Margules & Sarkar (2007) state that adequacy cannot be measured in terms of area of land. I...

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...tiveness became embedded into conservation policies and conservation programmes, with several early developments published in Australia (e.g. Austin & Margules, 1984; Commonwealth of Australia, 1992; =-=Belbin, 1993-=-, 1995; Awimbo, Norton & Overmars, 1996; JANIS, 1997). The concept of typicalness was seen as a part of representativeness (Margules & Usher, 1981, p. 100): ‘Areas selected to be representative would ...

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...efficiency? Irreplaceability has several slightly different operational definitions and it is sometimes confounded by selection frequency or alternative solutions produced by stochastic optimisation (=-=Ball et al., 2009-=-). Replacement cost has a mathematically clear definition (Cabeza & Moilanen, 2006), measured via the difference between an optimal unconstrained and optimal constrained solution. In these definitions...

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...bility is related to the existence of alternatives in reserve design, and provides a quantitative assessment of the contribution of areas for meeting conservation targets (Pressey et al., 1993, 1994; =-=Ferrier et al., 2000-=-; Justus & Sarkar, 2002). A completely irreplaceable area is considered essential for meeting conservation objectives, whereas an area with low irreplaceability can be substituted by other sites. In o...

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...t the outset we should clarify terminology and the scope of this study. SCP focuses on delivering actions that achieve conservation goals, which involves a significant socio-political component (e.g. =-=Knight et al., 2006-=-a, 2010; Margules & Sarkar, 2007). Within SCP there is a fundamental biogeographic-economic activity of identifying important areas for biodiversity; where, when and how we might efficiently achieve c...

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...ber of unrepresented species (or other biodiversity features) that a new area adds.’ The historical development of the concept of complementarity is well known (Williams, 2001; Justus & Sarkar, 2002; =-=Margules et al., 2002-=-). Complementarity derives from studies of species composition and species richness. Whittaker (1972) related the notion of diversity to geographic scale and spatial context by introducing alpha, beta...

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...mplementarity and targets-based planning paradigm (Williams, 2001). Site-selection algorithms, which use complementarity, can identify areas that meet biodiversity targets as efficiently as possible (=-=Bedward et al., 1992-=-; Pressey et al., 1994; Csuti et al., 1997). The minimum set coverage approach to site selection represents all features with minimal cost, and the approach therefore is explicitly focusing on (cost-)...

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...living environment (Noss, 1990; Bonn & Gaston, 2005). The definition of comprehensiveness has not changed much from the 1990s – it can still be defined as the ‘as many species as possible’ principle (=-=Burgman & Lindenmayer, 1998-=-; Stewart, Noyce & Possingham, 2003; Beger & Possingham, 2008). However, comprehensiveness and representativeness have become more clearly defined and separated with respect to each other. Limitations...

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...s and decisions to reserve other areas.’ Faith & Walker (1996b) and Faith et al. (2003) defined complementarity directly as ‘the contextdependent, marginal gain in biodiversity provided by the area’ (=-=Faith et al., 2003-=-, p. 311). Note that targets can also be specified, and complementarity evaluated in relation to various targets, including those specified for persistence of features (Faith & Walker, 1996a, b; Reyer...

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...ersity features in focal areas (Margules & Pressey, 2000; Cabeza & Moilanen, 2001; Sarkar et al., 2006; Moilanen, 2008). Complementarity is often cited as the defining concept of SCP (Williams, 2001; =-=Funk & Richardson, 2002-=-; Justus & Sarkar, 2002; Margules & Sarkar, 2007; Moilanen, 2008). These concepts are the focus of the present work. We emphasise that this focus is principally on the philosophy of SCP rather than it...

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...et al., 2006). In reserve selection, the concept of representation naturally leads to the concept of representation goal or target (Nilsson & Götmark, 1992; Margules & Pressey, 2000; Williams, 2001; =-=Arponen et al., 2005-=-; Wilhere, Goering & Wang, 2008). What is the adequate extent of representation of a feature Biological Reviews 88 (2013) 443–464 © 2012 The Authors. Biological Reviews © 2012 Cambridge Philosophical ...

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... Andelman & Possingham, 2004; Burgman, Lindenmayer & Elith, 2005; McCarthy et al., 2011), often in a situation where there are not enough data or data are sparse and incomplete (Polasky et al., 2000; =-=Gaston & Rodrigues, 2003-=-). As conservation competes with other land uses in the real-world, many studies have investigated how socio-economic and political factors affect conservation solutions (Naidoo et al., 2006; Wilson e...

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...es & Pressey, 2000). Thereafter, the applicability of the original model was improved in several studies that discussed the limitations and developed different expanded variants of the original work (=-=Cowling & Pressey, 2003-=-; Knight et al., 2006a, b, 2011a; Conservation Measures Partnership, 2007; Margules & Sarkar, 2007; Pressey & Bottrill, 2009; Sarkar & Illoldi-Rangel, 2010). The operational model of SCP was thus expa...

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..., glossary, iii) or ‘as the extent to which reserves fulfil their basic purpose of conserving biodiversity.’ (Lunney et al., 1997, p. 138). Persistence is frequently mentioned as underlying adequacy (=-=Cowling & Pressey, 2001-=-; Pressey & Logan, 1998; Williams & Araujo, 2000; Desmet & Cowling, 2004; Wilson et al., 2009; Linke et al., 2011). The idea of adequacy and species persistence goes back to studies of the species-are...

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...urpose of conserving biodiversity.’ (Lunney et al., 1997, p. 138). Persistence is frequently mentioned as underlying adequacy (Cowling & Pressey, 2001; Pressey & Logan, 1998; Williams & Araujo, 2000; =-=Desmet & Cowling, 2004-=-; Wilson et al., 2009; Linke et al., 2011). The idea of adequacy and species persistence goes back to studies of the species-area relationship, colonisation and extinction theories, and island biogeog...

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...y factor in conservation biology. It has been threats to natural values that have led to the protection of many natural areas since the 1970s, broadly within the context of the ‘biodiversity crisis’ (=-=Haila & Kouki, 1994-=-; Sarkar et al., 2006). Margules & Usher (1981, p. 82) demanded more scientific criteria for selecting reserve sites: ‘however, as a criterion the threat of human interference cannot be used on a site...

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...he early 1990s. Adequacy was one of the ‘CAR concepts’ (comprehensiveness, adequacy, and representativeness) established in the context of Australian forest reserves (Commonwealth of Australia, 1992; =-=JANIS, 1997-=-; Linke et al., 2011). Biological Reviews 88 (2013) 443–464 © 2012 The Authors. Biological Reviews © 2012 Cambridge Philosophical Society 448 Aija Kukkala and Atte Moilanen T ab le 1. O cc ur re nc es...

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... the region. Representativeness was considered a fundamental selection criterion of nature reserves by the 1970s and 1980s (Wright, 1977; Austin & Miller, 1978; see Margules & Usher, 1981 for review; =-=Austin & Margules, 1986-=-). The problem of how to measure representativeness is central to SCP and much discussed in the context of the target-based planning approach (Margules & Pressey, 2000, p. 246): ‘representativeness an...

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...ific area is for the efficient achievement of conservation objectives (Pressey et al., 1993, 1994; Ferrier, Pressey & Barrett, 2000; Margules & Pressey, 2000; Williams, 2001; Possingham et al., 2006; =-=Carwardine et al., 2007-=-). Irreplaceability is related to the existence of alternatives in reserve design, and provides a quantitative assessment of the contribution of areas for meeting conservation targets (Pressey et al.,...

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...on about how exactly complementarity should be defined and applied (Belbin, 1993, 1995; Pressey et al., 1993; Colwell & Coddington, 1994; Pearce & Moran, 1994; Underhill, 1994; Williams et al., 1996; =-=Faith & Walker, 1996-=-a; Csuti et al., 1997; Prendergast, Quinn & Lawton, 1999). Overall, it was accepted that complementarity had major advantages compared to, for example, using species richness scores as the basis for c...

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...ation target required and the one attained by the existing network.’ Conservation can be said to be effective when representation of all ecosystems and species (biodiversity) is adequately fulfilled (=-=Gaston et al., 2006-=-). Effectiveness and efficiency are somewhat closely related concepts that are often mentioned together. Margules & Pressey (2000, p. 243) describe effectiveness as follows: ‘The effectiveness of syst...

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...areas (Margules & Pressey, 2000; Cabeza & Moilanen, 2001; Sarkar et al., 2006; Moilanen, 2008). Complementarity is often cited as the defining concept of SCP (Williams, 2001; Funk & Richardson, 2002; =-=Justus & Sarkar, 2002-=-; Margules & Sarkar, 2007; Moilanen, 2008). These concepts are the focus of the present work. We emphasise that this focus is principally on the philosophy of SCP rather than its application. We conce...

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...s © 2012 Cambridge Philosophical Society 450 Aija Kukkala and Atte Moilanen Adequacy gained attention in relation to target-based conservation planning (Pressey et al., 2000; Williams & Araujo, 2000; =-=Klein et al., 2009-=-). As Wilson et al. (2009, p. 19) define the concept: ‘One approach to address adequacy in spatial conservation prioritization is to set conservation goals in the form of a target percentage of origin...

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...dely considered a feasible approach to conservation prioritisation – sites that need conservation action urgently are vulnerable and highly irreplaceable (Pressey & Taffs, 2001; Pressey et al., 2004; =-=Linke et al., 2007-=-). (12) Replacement cost Replacement cost is a more recent spatial prioritisation concept developed by Cabeza & Moilanen (2006). It is related to, but has a significantly different operational definit...

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...rsal processes).’ (Note that this definition includes elements of representativeness, see Section III.4). The idea of comprehensiveness can also be extended to the non-living environment (Noss, 1990; =-=Bonn & Gaston, 2005-=-). The definition of comprehensiveness has not changed much from the 1990s – it can still be defined as the ‘as many species as possible’ principle (Burgman & Lindenmayer, 1998; Stewart, Noyce & Possi...

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...fic detail, calculation of replacement cost requires full re-optimisation for the constrained solution: the constrained solution is not simply the optimal solution minus the areas that cannot be had (=-=Cabeza & Moilanen, 2006-=-). Some authors have seen replacement cost as a theoretical approach which can work with any quantitative measure of conservation effectiveness, including predictions of Biological Reviews 88 (2013) 4...

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...s, mathematics, and economics (Lindenmayer & Hunter, 2010; Reyers et al., 2010). It is also a discipline of decisions, with spatial analyses providing decision support for real-world decision-making (=-=Harwood, 2000-=-; Pullin et al., 2004; Wilson et al., 2006). So-called reserve selection (also known as site selection, area selection, reserve design, or reserve network design) is a specific kind of resource alloca...

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...sidered as the most influential paradigm to identify and bring under protection priority areas for conservation (Margules & Pressey, 2000; Knight, Cowling & Campbell, 2006a; Pressey & Bottrill, 2009; =-=Knight et al., 2010-=-; Sarkar & Illoldi-Rangel, 2010). It concerns the prioritisation of sites for their biodiversity value and the participatory planning and collaborative implementation of strategies, decisions and acti...

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...oritisation were also included as starting points (Margules & Pressey, 2000; Justus & Sarkar, 2002; Sarkar et al., 2006; Margules & Sarkar, 2007; Moilanen, 2008; Moilanen, Wilson & Possingham, 2009d; =-=Linke et al., 2011-=-). We investigated each term by reviewing its historical heritage, when the term was first mentioned, how it has been defined and discussed, and how definitions and usage have changed through time. Th...

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... should be maintained in the reserve network and across the landscape. This may require habitat management, maintenance, and restoration actions (Hobbs & Norton, 1996; Dobson, Bradshaw & Baker, 1997; =-=Crossman & Bryan, 2006-=-). Maintaining and monitoring of conservation areas is the 11th stage of SCP. The most frequent application of SCP is a one-off project, but various stages of SCP may be repeated, for example, followi...

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...h as complementarity, irreplaceability, and efficiency were built. Before SCP was developed, conservation biology focused on concepts such as rarity, richness, diversity, patch size, and naturalness (=-=Goldsmith, 1975-=-; Wright, 1977; Margules & Usher, 1981; Soulé, 1985; Smith & Theberge, 1986; Usher; 1986), and all were used as criteria for defining an ideal reserve. Threat was also recognised as part of conservat...

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...pproximately 40–60% of all publications), implying that the targetoriented model of specifying objectives and trying to satisfy them efficiently has been widely adopted (Nicholson & Possingham, 2006; =-=Carwardine et al., 2009-=-; Moilanen & Arponen, 2011). The statistics provided in Table 1 can be used to provide an overview of the use of terminology in SCP, for identifying research trends, and for identifying informative ke...

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...ievement of previously developed objectives. At this stage the technique of gap analysis is frequently used, to identify deficiencies in the conservation coverage of biodiversity (Scott et al., 1993; =-=Kiester et al., 1996-=-; Rodrigues et al., 2004a). The ninth stage of SCP fundamentally concerns the biogeographical activity of spatial conservation prioritisation or conservation assessment. It requires identifying import...

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...ation area network) and how well it covers the biodiversity of the region. Representativeness was considered a fundamental selection criterion of nature reserves by the 1970s and 1980s (Wright, 1977; =-=Austin & Miller, 1978-=-; see Margules & Usher, 1981 for review; Austin & Margules, 1986). The problem of how to measure representativeness is central to SCP and much discussed in the context of the target-based planning app...

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...t and verification of conservation impact has grown, and effectiveness has been expanded to cover factors such as management, governance, and costs (Wright et al., 2007; Brooks, Wright & Sheil, 2009; =-=Eklund et al., 2011-=-). The concept of management effectiveness (how well conservation areas are managed) has also evolved from the concept of effectiveness (Chape et al., 2005; Hockings et al., 2006; CantuSalazar & Gasto...

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...mental biogeographic-economic activity of identifying important areas for biodiversity; where, when and how we might efficiently achieve conservation goals (Pressey et al., 2007; Wilson et al., 2007; =-=Ferrier & Wintle, 2009-=-). This activity can be called spatial conservation prioritisation and is our present focus. It also is closely synonymous to conservation assessment, i.e. quantitative assessment of conservation valu...

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...es clear references to adequacy and complementarity. Overall, representativeness is one of the most defined and discussed concepts in SCP (Stokland, 1997; Pressey & Taffs, 2001; Pressey et al., 2002; =-=Kati et al., 2004-=-; Sarkar et al., 2006). Nevertheless, from the varied nature of comments about representativeness, it seems apparent that the definition of the concept remains unclear. We will discuss the definitions...

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...ions include those of spatial scale, connectivity, and features of reserve areas (Saunders et al., 1991; Rebelo & Siegfried, 1992; Pressey & Taffs, 2001; Rodrigues et al., 2004b; Gaston et al., 2006; =-=Cantu-Salazar & Gaston, 2010-=-). Also measures of feature distribution, condition, persistence and viability could be employed to link effectiveness to adequacy (Margules & Sarkar, 2007). Gaston et al. (2006) summarised that the o...

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...CP have had variable definitions and they have been used assuming slightly different meanings. Such variation, undesirably, introduces linguistic uncertainty (Regan et al., 2002; Bonn & Gaston, 2005; =-=Carey & Burgman, 2008-=-; Regan, Ensbey & Burgman, 2009) into discussions, negotiations, and planning. Many of the publications reviewed herein have used the core SCP terms without being explicit about which alternative defi...

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...sting the term with conditional irreplaceability. Therefore, irreplaceability has been referred to also as a measure of uniqueness, i.e. as the relative importance of a site (Funk & Richardson, 2002; =-=Lawler et al., 2003-=-). Calculation of irreplaceability considers complementarity in an implicit manner (Pressey & Taffs, 2001; Lawler et al., 2003), and as a practical limitation, it can, in its original form, only be me...

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...on problems. SCP is a multidisciplinary science; it employs methodology from many other fields of science such as spatial ecology, sociology, geography, computer sciences, mathematics, and economics (=-=Lindenmayer & Hunter, 2010-=-; Reyers et al., 2010). It is also a discipline of decisions, with spatial analyses providing decision support for real-world decision-making (Harwood, 2000; Pullin et al., 2004; Wilson et al., 2006)....

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...ty and integrity of populations, species and communities’ (Commonwealth of Australia, 1992, glossary, iii) or ‘as the extent to which reserves fulfil their basic purpose of conserving biodiversity.’ (=-=Lunney et al., 1997-=-, p. 138). Persistence is frequently mentioned as underlying adequacy (Cowling & Pressey, 2001; Pressey & Logan, 1998; Williams & Araujo, 2000; Desmet & Cowling, 2004; Wilson et al., 2009; Linke et al...

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...patial conservation prioritisation. A narrower way to define effectiveness is meeting all specified protection or representation targets for a region (Rodrigues & Brooks, 2007; Wiersma & Nudds, 2009; =-=Ferrier & Drielsma, 2010-=-). Ferrier & Wintle (2009, p. 12) describe the concept as: ‘Measures based on such targets (e.g. number of targets achieved, or average proportion of each target achieved ) step beyond simply evaluati...

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...otected area solutions is motivated by a belief that such solutions have relatively higher social acceptability and therefore stand a greater chance of being implemented (e.g. Fernandes et al., 2005; =-=Game et al., 2011-=-). Biological Reviews 88 (2013) 443–464 © 2012 The Authors. Biological Reviews © 2012 Cambridge Philosophical Society Concepts of systematic conservation planning 455 Early on, conservation planners r...

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...07; Ferrier & Wintle, 2009). In the 1980–1990s, representativeness became embedded into conservation policies and conservation programmes, with several early developments published in Australia (e.g. =-=Austin & Margules, 1984-=-; Commonwealth of Australia, 1992; Belbin, 1993, 1995; Awimbo, Norton & Overmars, 1996; JANIS, 1997). The concept of typicalness was seen as a part of representativeness (Margules & Usher, 1981, p. 10...

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...tion of comprehensiveness has not changed much from the 1990s – it can still be defined as the ‘as many species as possible’ principle (Burgman & Lindenmayer, 1998; Stewart, Noyce & Possingham, 2003; =-=Beger & Possingham, 2008-=-). However, comprehensiveness and representativeness have become more clearly defined and separated with respect to each other. Limitations to the application of the concept also remain (Wilson et al....

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... et al., 2003). Threats are frequently accounted for in target-setting (Sarkar et al., 2006). Threats were mentioned in the context of priority ranking in early reserve selection studies (Tans, 1974; =-=Gehlback, 1975-=-; Wright, 1977). Especially in older literature, threat has been compared to the concept of fragility which is often referred to as vulnerability (Ray, 1975; see Smith & Theberge, 1986, for review). I...

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...if occurring within 5–10 years and Jarvis et al. (2010) reduced this to within 2–5 years. Longterm potential changes or future threats are also distinguished and expected in the 5–20 year time range (=-=Jarvis et al., 2010-=-). While one could argue about the time intervals considered as relevant, there is an important observation to be made here. In our interpretation, threat and vulnerability both have implications for ...

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...ed opportunism). This latter principle of informed opportunism is an important recent addition to the scope of flexibility as it can be seen that flexibility enables effectiveness (Game et al., 2011; =-=Knight et al., 2011-=-a). Flexibility may have linkages to irreplaceability (Ferrier et al., 2000). Following the definition of Margules et al. (2002, p. 321): ‘Flexibility is a property of the network of areas. It arises ...

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...can be called spatial conservation prioritisation and is our present focus. It also is closely synonymous to conservation assessment, i.e. quantitative assessment of conservation value and potential (=-=Fuller et al., 1991-=-; Noss et al., 2002; Knight et al., 2006a; Ferrier & Wintle, 2009). Herein we concentrate on the core concepts of SCP relevant for the setting of conservation objectives and biogeographically and econ...

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... ’ Irreplaceability was first applied to conservation planning in New South Wales, and after that to the selection of priority areas in South Africa and USA (Pressey et al., 1993, 1994; Rebelo, 1994; =-=Lombard et al., 1997-=-). Most scientific discussion on irreplaceability took place during the decade after the first introduction of the concept. The first definition of irreplaceability was given by Pressey et al. (1993) ...