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...asic psychological needs (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2000). To achieve an optimal psychological functioning, we as human beings need to feel connected to our social environment (Harlow, 1958; Bowlby, 1988; =-=Baumeister and Leary, 1995-=-), competent in what we undertake (White, 1959; Harter, 1978; Connell and Wellborn, 1991) and autonomous in our actions (deCharms, 1968). In this context, the perception of autonomy is meant as the pe...

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...mined extrinsic motivation is mediated not only by athletes’ perceptions of competence, as Vallerand and Pelletier’s (1985) model suggested, but also by their perceptions of autonomy and relatedness (=-=Deci and Ryan, 2000-=-). Finally, research conducted in the fields of education and parenting further supports the importance of autonomy-supportive behaviours for the motivation of subordinates (i.e. students and children...

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...onal model. Athletes’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation refers to doing an activity for the pleasure and satisfaction derived from engaging in the activity (Lepper et al., 1973; =-=Deci, 1975-=-; Deci and Ryan, 1985). Because the activity is pleasant, intrinsically motivated athletes will engage in sport with a strong sense of volition. In contrast, extrinsic motivation implies that athletes...

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...eedback relative to no feedback has a positive impact on the intrinsic motivation of young adults as indicated by both self-report and free-choice measures (Vallerand, 1983; Vallerand and Reid, 1984; =-=Deci et al., 1999-=-). However, research suggests that providing verbal feedback is a more complex endeavour than it might appear (Henderlong and Lepper, 2002). Indeed, the way verbal feedback is presented is an importan...

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...wann and Pittman, 1977). [In the different studies reviewed in this paper, intrinsic motivation was either assessed using a self-report measure or a behavioural measure (i.e. the free-choice measure; =-=Deci, 1971-=-). This behavioural measure is operationalized as the amount of time spent on the activity during a free-time period, when the experiment is supposedly over.] These results were replicated in the phys...

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...letes’ three basic psychological needs (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2000). To achieve an optimal psychological functioning, we as human beings need to feel connected to our social environment (Harlow, 1958; =-=Bowlby, 1988-=-; Baumeister and Leary, 1995), competent in what we undertake (White, 1959; Harter, 1978; Connell and Wellborn, 1991) and autonomous in our actions (deCharms, 1968). In this context, the perception of...

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...in selfcontrol and self-reliance. Finally, an experimental study showed that providing choice has more beneficial consequences when people have the necessary competence to adequately make a decision (=-=Iyengar and Lepper, 2000-=-). Although these findings should be replicated in the sport domain, they nevertheless suggest that structure is essential to sustain athletes’ perceptions of competence. In light of these results, au...

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...ext, the perception of autonomy is meant as the perception that one’s action is in accordance with one’s values as opposed to being controlled by external forces or internal pressures (Shapiro, 1981; =-=Deci and Ryan, 1987-=-). Being autonomous does not equate with being independent, since it is possible for someone to depend on a provider and still be autonomous in one’s actions (Memmi, 1984). For example, athletes who v...

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...ring with a more global approach (McGraw, 1978). Research conducted in the sport domain has supported the negative impact of ego-involvement on intrinsic motivation. In line with other research (e.g. =-=Nicholls, 1989-=-), ego-involvement has been defined as athletes’ tendency to evaluate their performance by comparing themselves with others as opposed to selfreferenced standards. Duda et al. (1995) showed that athle...

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...ion in decision making. Autonomy support thus implies that athletes are regarded as individuals deserving self-determination, and not mere pawns that should be controlled to obtain a certain outcome (=-=deCharms, 1968-=-). Conversely, controlling behaviours are defined as pressures to think, feel or behave in specified ways, thereby ignoring the person’s needs and feelings (Deci and Ryan, 1985). Controlling behaviour...

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...or unfair. Experimental studies have shown that, when setting limits, adults who provide a rationale for their regulations do not jeopardize subordinates’ intrinsic motivation (Koestner et al., 1984; =-=Deci et al., 1994-=-). Acknowledging the other person’s feelings and perspective Together with providing a rationale, autonomy-supportive coaches inquire about and acknowledge athletes’ feelings about the tasks and rules...

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...lation and exploitation of the parent–child bond (e.g. love-withdrawal and guilt induction), as well as negative, affect-laden criticisms, have been found to be detrimental for children’s well-being (=-=Barber, 1996-=-). Because it represents an insidious form of control, psychological control inhibits and intrudes upon psychological development, jeopardizing intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation. The ...

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...l functioning, we as human beings need to feel connected to our social environment (Harlow, 1958; Bowlby, 1988; Baumeister and Leary, 1995), competent in what we undertake (White, 1959; Harter, 1978; =-=Connell and Wellborn, 1991-=-) and autonomous in our actions (deCharms, 1968). In this context, the perception of autonomy is meant as the perception that one’s action is in accordance with one’s values as opposed to being contro...

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...nothing. These studies support the beneficial impact of offering a rationale for a requested task on intrinsic motivation. Similar findings have been obtained in the educational context (Newby, 1991; =-=Cordova and Lepper, 1996-=-). Further research is needed to replicate these experimental findings in a sport setting in those specific circumstances in which the requested training is not intuitively meaningful to athletes. Res...

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..., 1985; Koestner et al., 1987). As was demonstrated with tangible rewards, ego-involvement narrows people’s focus on the outcome and limits their behaviours to those leading directly to this outcome (=-=Grolnick and Ryan, 1987-=-), thereby interfering with a more global approach (McGraw, 1978). Research conducted in the sport domain has supported the negative impact of ego-involvement on intrinsic motivation. In line with oth...

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...ignoring the person’s needs and feelings (Deci and Ryan, 1985). Controlling behaviours can be seen as placing value on control and employing power-assertive techniques that pressure others to comply (=-=Grolnick and Ryan, 1989-=-). Although research has typically operationalized autonomy-supportive behaviours as providing choice (e.g. Zuckerman et al., 1978), the above definition of the construct suggests a more complex set o...

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...rol, controlling statements and guilt-inducing criticisms will undermine autonomy and intrinsic motivation, there is much more debate regarding the impact of tangible rewards on intrinsic motivation (=-=Eisenberger and Cameron, 1996-=-; Deci et al., 1999). Although rewards were once highly recommended and widely used (e.g. Smith and Smoll, 1996), research has shown that rewards as reinforcements do not necessarily have positive out...

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... [or an athlete’s]) perspective, acknowledges the other’s feelings, and provides the other with pertinent information and opportunities for choice, while minimizing the use of pressures and demands’ (=-=Black and Deci, 2000-=-, p. 742). Grolnick and Ryan (1989) further defined autonomy support as parents (or coaches) placing value on self-initiation as well as encouraging choice, independent problem solving and participati...

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...e internalization process thus distinguishes between self-determined and non-self-determined types of motivation (Deci and Ryan, 2000), evoking the distinction between internalization and compliance (=-=Kelman, 1961-=-). Self-determined types of motivation refer to behaviours that are coherent with one’s value system (Deci and Ryan, 2000). When experiencing self-determined extrinsic motivation, one volitionally dec...

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...l psychological functioning, we as human beings need to feel connected to our social environment (Harlow, 1958; Bowlby, 1988; Baumeister and Leary, 1995), competent in what we undertake (White, 1959; =-=Harter, 1978-=-; Connell and Wellborn, 1991) and autonomous in our actions (deCharms, 1968). In this context, the perception of autonomy is meant as the perception that one’s action is in accordance with one’s value...

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...003 The aim of this paper is to present a motivational model of the coach–athlete relationship that describes how coaches may influence athletes’ motivation. In line with cognitive evaluation theory (=-=Deci and Ryan, 1980-=-, 1985) and the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997, 2000), a motivational sequence is proposed where coaches’ personal orientation towards coaching, the context ...

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... impact on athletes’ three basic psychological needs (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2000). To achieve an optimal psychological functioning, we as human beings need to feel connected to our social environment (=-=Harlow, 1958-=-; Bowlby, 1988; Baumeister and Leary, 1995), competent in what we undertake (White, 1959; Harter, 1978; Connell and Wellborn, 1991) and autonomous in our actions (deCharms, 1968). In this context, the...

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...t of competition on intrinsic motivation. Finally, field studies conducted in the educational domain have reported similar findings for both perceived autonomy (Boggiano et al., 1992) and competence (=-=Deci et al., 1981-=-a). Such research has successfully been applied to the sport setting. For instance, Blanchard and Vallerand (1996) observed the mediating effect of perceived need satisfaction on the relationship betw...

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...as allocation and withdrawal of material resources or privileges have been related to external forms of self-regulation, where compliance is obtained but without internalization of underlying values (=-=Hoffman, 1970-=-). Surveillance has also been shown to undermine intrinsic motivation (Lepper and Greene, 1975). Pittman et al. (1980) reported a linear decrease in participants’ interest as surveillance increased. T...

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... athletes. Research has further suggested that when setting limits and rules, offering a rationale for these regulations protects people’s motivation by facilitating their endorsement of these rules (=-=Koestner et al., 1984-=-). Kelman (1961) also suggested that, unlike mere compliance, internalization of values can only occur when the influencing agent possesses credibility. Only when statements are considered truthful an...

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...o external forms of self-regulation, where compliance is obtained but without internalization of underlying values (Hoffman, 1970). Surveillance has also been shown to undermine intrinsic motivation (=-=Lepper and Greene, 1975-=-). Pittman et al. (1980) reported a linear decrease in participants’ interest as surveillance increased. These results have been replicated in the sport context. In one study, Brustad (1988) found tha...

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...t of competition on intrinsic motivation. Finally, field studies conducted in the educational domain have reported similar findings for both perceived autonomy (Boggiano et al., 1992) and competence (=-=Deci et al., 1981-=-a). Such research has successfully been applied to the sport setting. For instance, Blanchard and Vallerand (1996) observed the mediating effect of perceived need satisfaction on the relationship betw...

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...aching and coaching. It is fortunate, however, that research further suggests that the supervisors’ interpersonal style is malleable with training and that an autonomy-supportive style can be taught (=-=deCharms, 1976-=-; Deci et al., 1989; Williams and Deci, 1996; Reeve, 1998). In the sport domain, as part of a year-long multimodal intervention, Pelletier et al. (1986) elaborated and implemented autonomysupportive w...

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..., 1993; Power and Woolger, 1994; Weiss and Hayashi, 1995; Gaumond and Fortier, 2000) as well as in educational settings (e.g. Schaefer, 1959; Becker, 1964; Grolnick and Ryan, 1989; Ryan et al., 1994; =-=Kochanska and Aksan, 1995-=-). 893The coach–athlete relationship Taken together, these results highlight the importance of structure and involvement for athletes’ intrinsic motivation and self-determined extrinsic motivation. Th...

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...rt and free-choice measures (Vallerand, 1983; Vallerand and Reid, 1984; Deci et al., 1999). However, research suggests that providing verbal feedback is a more complex endeavour than it might appear (=-=Henderlong and Lepper, 2002-=-). Indeed, the way verbal feedback is presented is an important moderator of its impact on intrinsic motivation. It has been argued that positive feedback has two functional aspects: an informational ...

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...has replicated these findings in sports (Woolger and Power, 1993; Power and Woolger, 1994; Weiss and Hayashi, 1995; Gaumond and Fortier, 2000) as well as in educational settings (e.g. Schaefer, 1959; =-=Becker, 1964-=-; Grolnick and Ryan, 1989; Ryan et al., 1994; Kochanska and Aksan, 1995). 893The coach–athlete relationship Taken together, these results highlight the importance of structure and involvement for athl...

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...n than not, coaches’ jobs are directly dependent on the team’s performance and achievements. In such circumstances, people become ego-involved in their work and, in turn, emit controlling behaviours (=-=Deci et al., 1982-=-). In the educational domain, Deci et al. (1982) examined the impact of performance pressure on teachers’ controlling behaviours. In this experimental study, participants were asked to teach students ...

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...dents who were taught by controlling teachers. The results of another study revealed that controlling teachers were also perceived to be more interested, enthusiastic and competent by their students (=-=Flink et al., 1990-=-). It is highly probable that these misconceptions about the usefulness of controlling behaviours also prevail in the sport domain, leading well-intentioned coaches to become controlling and undermine...

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...pects of the task, people lose their holistic approach to the activity and the flexibility necessary to be creative (Amabile et al., 1986) and to make optimal choices in a given set of circumstances (=-=McGraw and McCullers, 1979-=-). In the sport context, rewards being difficult to avoid, coaches need to maximize rewards’ informational aspect in terms of personal achievement and team growth. By the same token, maximizing the in...

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...ego-involvement narrows people’s focus on the outcome and limits their behaviours to those leading directly to this outcome (Grolnick and Ryan, 1987), thereby interfering with a more global approach (=-=McGraw, 1978-=-). Research conducted in the sport domain has supported the negative impact of ego-involvement on intrinsic motivation. In line with other research (e.g. Nicholls, 1989), ego-involvement has been defi...

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...ship tence, the controlling aspect incites the person into reemitting the behaviour. Research shows that when the informational aspect is salient and the controlling aspect is relatively non-salient (=-=Fisher, 1978-=-), positive feedback enhances people’s perceptions of competence, which, in turn, has a positive impact on their intrinsic motivation (Vallerand and Reid, 1984). However, when the controlling aspect i...

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...etence feedback and a controlling aspect. For tangible rewards, the competence feedback needs to be highly salient (Fisher, 1978) for them to enhance people’s intrinsic motivation (Ryan et al., 1983; =-=Harackiewicz et al., 1984-=-). Still, Deci and co-workers’ (1999) meta-analysis shows that, in general, tangible rewards undermine intrinsic motivation towards an interesting task. Specifically, rewards decrease intrinsic motiva...

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...showed that these 2-year-olds were more resistant to maternal attempts of managing their behaviours. In turn, toddlers’ resistance was more likely to be met with coercive responses from their mother (=-=Lee and Bates, 1985-=-). Taken together, these findings suggest that temperaments differ across children and more difficult children are more likely to elicit controlling behaviours. Unfortunately, as the present review su...

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...cents to be easier. Another study investigated mothers’ different reactions towards conduct-disordered boys and normal boys, where each mother interacted with their own and with someone else’s child (=-=Anderson et al., 1986-=-). The results showed that conduct-disordered boys elicited more negative responses than their normal counterparts from their own mother as well as from mothers of normal boys. Finally, a study invest...

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...esearch has shown that athletes who are intrinsically motivated and self-determined in their behaviours invest more effort (Pelletier et al., 1995; Williams and Gill, 1995; Fortier and Grenier, 1999; =-=Li, 1999-=-), report higher levels of concentration (Brière et al., 1995; Pelletier et al., 1995), are more persistent (Fortier and Grenier, 1999; Pelletier et al., 2001, 2003; Sarrazin et al., 2001) and perfor...

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...ho were told nothing. These studies support the beneficial impact of offering a rationale for a requested task on intrinsic motivation. Similar findings have been obtained in the educational context (=-=Newby, 1991-=-; Cordova and Lepper, 1996). Further research is needed to replicate these experimental findings in a sport setting in those specific circumstances in which the requested training is not intuitively m...

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...rage athletes to be more autonomous, thus confirming coaches’ initial beliefs. Indeed, two experimental studies have shown that subordinates’ motivations influence supervisors’ subsequent behaviours (=-=Pelletier and Vallerand, 1996-=-). In both hypothetical (Study 1) and actual situations (Study 2), Pelletier and Vallerand (1996) showed that the more supervisors believed that their subordinates displayed intrinsic motivation, the ...

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...85) previous motivational model. Athletes’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation refers to doing an activity for the pleasure and satisfaction derived from engaging in the activity (=-=Lepper et al., 1973-=-; Deci, 1975; Deci and Ryan, 1985). Because the activity is pleasant, intrinsically motivated athletes will engage in sport with a strong sense of volition. In contrast, extrinsic motivation implies t...

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...opposed to a game. Results from these studies showed that ego-involvement undermined intrinsic motivation as indicated by both self-reports and behavioural measures (Ryan, 1982; Plant and Ryan, 1985; =-=Koestner et al., 1987-=-). As was demonstrated with tangible rewards, ego-involvement narrows people’s focus on the outcome and limits their behaviours to those leading directly to this outcome (Grolnick and Ryan, 1987), the...

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...ecisions. These results were also extended in a laboratory study in which participants were asked to solve analytic reasoning problems in either an ‘autonomy-supportive’ or a ‘controlling’ condition (=-=Boggiano et al., 1993-=-). In the ‘autonomy-supportive’ condition, the teacher suggested strategies that would be useful to solve the problems but the students were encouraged to use the strategy of their choice. In the ‘con...

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...re used. Other studies examining parent–child interactions replicated these findings, with higher stress being related to a more controlling and intrusive parenting style (Piotrkowski and Katz, 1983; =-=Conger et al., 1984-=-; Repetti, 1987, 1994; Daniels and Moos, 1988; Grossman et al., 1988; Pianta and Egeland, 1990; Jennings et al., 1991). These results support the negative impact of stressful environments on autonomy-...

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...ies to be largely new and unfamiliar (Skinner and Belmont, 1993); (3) parents, teachers and undergraduates alike view incentives and rewards as optimal motivational strategies (Boggiano et al., 1987; =-=Boggiano, 1998-=-); and (4) many adults believe that the larger the reward, the more efficient it will be as a motivational strategy (Boggiano et al., 1987). Furthermore, these beliefs have also been shown to be highl...

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...best. Indeed, it has been shown that in a ‘controlling’ condition people who are not intrinsically motivated exhibit greater decrements in performance than their intrinsically motivated counterparts (=-=Boggiano et al., 1988-=-, 1992). A vicious circle is thus observed where, on the one hand, coaches use controlling strategies that paradoxically lower the very motivation they wish to increase and, on the other hand, athlete...

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...ted these findings, with higher stress being related to a more controlling and intrusive parenting style (Piotrkowski and Katz, 1983; Conger et al., 1984; Repetti, 1987, 1994; Daniels and Moos, 1988; =-=Grossman et al., 1988-=-; Pianta and Egeland, 1990; Jennings et al., 1991). These results support the negative impact of stressful environments on autonomy-supportive behaviours. Being autonomy supportive appears to require ...

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...ted to a more controlling and intrusive parenting style (Piotrkowski and Katz, 1983; Conger et al., 1984; Repetti, 1987, 1994; Daniels and Moos, 1988; Grossman et al., 1988; Pianta and Egeland, 1990; =-=Jennings et al., 1991-=-). These results support the negative impact of stressful environments on autonomy-supportive behaviours. Being autonomy supportive appears to require the use of psychological resources that might not...

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... analytic problems than students who were in the ‘controlling’ condition. The detrimental effect of controlling support on motivation has also been demonstrated during parent–child interactions (e.g. =-=Grolnick et al., 1984-=-). The detrimental impact of controlling support on people’s motivation was successfully replicated in an exercise setting. Brawley and Vallerand (1985) assessed the impact of fitness leaders’ control...

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...ort psychologists (e.g. McAuley and Tammen, 1989; Goudas et al., 1995; Vallerand, 2001). Many have investigated how one can nurture these motivations in athletes (e.g. Ryan et al., 1984; Dwyer, 1995; =-=Beauchamp et al., 1996-=-; Vallerand and Losier, 1999). Although many factors may impact athletes’ intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation, the coach– athlete relationship is one of the most important influences on...

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...ive impact of psychological control was tested in an experimental study in which mothers and their 6- or 7-year-old child were invited to the laboratory and asked to play with Legos and Lincoln Logs (=-=Deci et al., 1993-=-). Mothers’ controlling vocalizations were coded, which included orders, statements containing the words ‘should’ or ‘have to’, criticisms, interruptions directing the child’s attention, and other com...

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...003 Taylor & Francis Ltd DOI: 10.1080/0264041031000140374 both intrinsic motivation and self-determined extrinsic motivation has been emphasized by sport psychologists (e.g. McAuley and Tammen, 1989; =-=Goudas et al., 1995-=-; Vallerand, 2001). Many have investigated how one can nurture these motivations in athletes (e.g. Ryan et al., 1984; Dwyer, 1995; Beauchamp et al., 1996; Vallerand and Losier, 1999). Although many fa...

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...n this puzzle, just as you should’ (Ryan et al., 1983), ‘If you keep it up I’ll be able to use your data’ (Pittman et al., 1980) and ‘Keep it up. I would like you to do even better on the next game’ (=-=Kast and Connor, 1988-=-), all led to a decrease in intrinsic motivation. These locutions clearly conveyed the experimenters’ expectations and desires about participants’ behaviour. Positive feedback was thus used as a form ...

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... the impact of the interpersonal context of competition on intrinsic motivation. Finally, field studies conducted in the educational domain have reported similar findings for both perceived autonomy (=-=Boggiano et al., 1992-=-) and competence (Deci et al., 1981a). Such research has successfully been applied to the sport setting. For instance, Blanchard and Vallerand (1996) observed the mediating effect of perceived need sa...

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...he importance of the three basic human needs for intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation. In the sport setting, the results of many studies support the direct effect of perceived autonomy (=-=Hellstedt, 1990-=-), competence (Roberts et al., 1981; Vallerand, 1983; Vallerand and Reid, 1984, 1988; Scanlan and Lewthwaite, 1986; Vallerand and Blais, 1986) and relatedness (Losier and Vallerand, 1995) on intrinsic...

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.../ISSN 1466-447X online # 2003 Taylor & Francis Ltd DOI: 10.1080/0264041031000140374 both intrinsic motivation and self-determined extrinsic motivation has been emphasized by sport psychologists (e.g. =-=McAuley and Tammen, 1989-=-; Goudas et al., 1995; Vallerand, 2001). Many have investigated how one can nurture these motivations in athletes (e.g. Ryan et al., 1984; Dwyer, 1995; Beauchamp et al., 1996; Vallerand and Losier, 19...

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...pact of stress on autonomy-supportive behaviours. Another study using parental interviews assessed the impact of recent stressful events on parental control over their 13- to 18-year-old adolescents (=-=Grolnick et al., 1996-=-). Grolnick and co-workers found that in highly stressful environments, more controlling and powerassertive parental techniques were used. Other studies examining parent–child interactions replicated ...

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...permissive interpersonal style have been described as not being demanding of their children, not requiring them to exhibit mature behaviour, allowing total self-regulation and avoiding confrontation (=-=Baumrind, 1991-=-). In contrast, having an autonomy-supportive style is more akin to an authoritative style of parenting (Baumrind, 1991), characterized by parents who monitor and set clear limits for their children’s...

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...nomy-supportive strategies to be largely new and unfamiliar (Skinner and Belmont, 1993); (3) parents, teachers and undergraduates alike view incentives and rewards as optimal motivational strategies (=-=Boggiano et al., 1987-=-; Boggiano, 1998); and (4) many adults believe that the larger the reward, the more efficient it will be as a motivational strategy (Boggiano et al., 1987). Furthermore, these beliefs have also been s...

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...hasized by sport psychologists (e.g. McAuley and Tammen, 1989; Goudas et al., 1995; Vallerand, 2001). Many have investigated how one can nurture these motivations in athletes (e.g. Ryan et al., 1984; =-=Dwyer, 1995-=-; Beauchamp et al., 1996; Vallerand and Losier, 1999). Although many factors may impact athletes’ intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation, the coach– athlete relationship is one of the most...

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...h young male wrestlers, Scanlan and Lewthwaite (1986) found that favourable adult involvement patterns predicted athletes’ high levels of enjoyment. Similar results were found with high-school girls (=-=Brown et al., 1989-=-), where parents’ encouragement and support predicted girls’ participation in sports and physical activity. Similarly, Ommundsen and Vaglum (1991) found that coaches’ and parents’ positive emotional i...

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...1997). More specifically, research has shown that athletes who are intrinsically motivated and self-determined in their behaviours invest more effort (Pelletier et al., 1995; Williams and Gill, 1995; =-=Fortier and Grenier, 1999-=-; Li, 1999), report higher levels of concentration (Brière et al., 1995; Pelletier et al., 1995), are more persistent (Fortier and Grenier, 1999; Pelletier et al., 2001, 2003; Sarrazin et al., 2001) ...

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...ild interactions replicated these findings, with higher stress being related to a more controlling and intrusive parenting style (Piotrkowski and Katz, 1983; Conger et al., 1984; Repetti, 1987, 1994; =-=Daniels and Moos, 1988-=-; Grossman et al., 1988; Pianta and Egeland, 1990; Jennings et al., 1991). These results support the negative impact of stressful environments on autonomy-supportive behaviours. Being autonomy support...

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...igated. The results showed that coaches’ expectations about athletes’ performance, independent of athletes’ actual potential, are sufficient to lead coaches to behave differently with their athletes (=-=Horn, 1984-=-). This effect was also found in physical education classes (Martinek, 1981; Martinek and Karper, 1984). Coaches’ expectations about their athletes are often confirmed because coaches act differently ...

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...t of perceived autonomy (Hellstedt, 1990), competence (Roberts et al., 1981; Vallerand, 1983; Vallerand and Reid, 1984, 1988; Scanlan and Lewthwaite, 1986; Vallerand and Blais, 1986) and relatedness (=-=Losier and Vallerand, 1995-=-) on intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, experimental studies have shown that perceived competence and autonomy mediate the impact of social agents on motivation. In one experimental study of physical ...

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...cal skills, but who also nurtured the person as a whole. Laumann has said of him that he was ‘the most selfless man [she has] ever known’ (Wickens, 1999), with a rare mix of gentleness and toughness (=-=Blatchford, 1992-=-). He not only ‘knows everything about this one thing (rowing) [but] . . . his joy is to see his athletes realize a dream’ (Wickens, 1999). Four years later in the Barcelona Olympics, Canada’s top row...

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...rences thus greatly influence coaches’ behaviours. Undeniably, some athletes are more difficult to deal with than others. From a very early age, individual differences in temperament can be observed (=-=Breitmayer and Ricciuti, 1988-=-). Empirical evidence in the developmental literature suggests that difficult children 896 Mageau and Vallerand have more controlling parents than easier offspring. One study investigated the impact o...

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...in extra effort, the more they became controlling in an attempt to obtain the desirable behaviours. Another study in the sport domain specifically supported Pelletier and Vallerand’s (1996) findings (=-=Courneya and McAuley, 1991-=-). Using an experimental design, undergraduates were asked to rate the effectiveness of motivational strategies in enhancing children’s interest in sports and physical activity. Participants were rand...

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...e they were self-determined in their motivation towards their sport. Other research has replicated these findings in sports (Woolger and Power, 1993; Power and Woolger, 1994; Weiss and Hayashi, 1995; =-=Gaumond and Fortier, 2000-=-) as well as in educational settings (e.g. Schaefer, 1959; Becker, 1964; Grolnick and Ryan, 1989; Ryan et al., 1994; Kochanska and Aksan, 1995). 893The coach–athlete relationship Taken together, these...

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... task (the stabilometer) displayed less intrinsic motivation from pre- to posttest compared with children who received no reward. Other research conducted in sports settings obtained similar results (=-=Halliwell, 1977-=-; Thomas and Tennant, 1978). It has been argued that offering rewards for task engagement sends the message that the task is not interesting in itself and thus focuses people on extrinsic reasons for ...

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...ing Institute, saw Spracklen’s success as a measure of what a master coach can accomplish: ‘Amateur and Olympic coaches bring a vision of personal excellence [and] . . . create intrinsic motivation’ (=-=Jones, 2002-=-). It is thus not surprising that several authors such as Jowett (2000) have stressed the importance of building an effective coach–athlete relationship, as the quality of this relationship is a cruci...

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...brought to her life: ‘What you remember’, she said, ‘is the process – what you learn about yourself by challenging yourself this way . . . the honesty that the training demands. It builds character’ (=-=Jones, 1996-=-). Laumann was intrinsically motivated towards rowing but she also had a strong self-determined extrinsic motivation. Deci and Ryan (1985, 2000) proposed that extrinsic motivation can either be selfde...

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...Vallerand and Rousseau, 2001). Silken Laumann, a famous Canadian rower, loved the special combination of grace and power of her sport. To her, the movement of her boat through water felt like flying (=-=Laumann, 2001-=-). Clearly, Laumann was intrinsically motivated towards rowing. However, she also endorsed the values of her sport and believed in the importance of what rowing represented. It is Laumann’s dedication...

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...erformance, independent of athletes’ actual potential, are sufficient to lead coaches to behave differently with their athletes (Horn, 1984). This effect was also found in physical education classes (=-=Martinek, 1981-=-; Martinek and Karper, 1984). Coaches’ expectations about their athletes are often confirmed because coaches act differently and according to their expectations towards athletes, thereby creating the ...

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...pendent of athletes’ actual potential, are sufficient to lead coaches to behave differently with their athletes (Horn, 1984). This effect was also found in physical education classes (Martinek, 1981; =-=Martinek and Karper, 1984-=-). Coaches’ expectations about their athletes are often confirmed because coaches act differently and according to their expectations towards athletes, thereby creating the very behaviour in athletes ...

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...sures (Shapiro, 1981; Deci and Ryan, 1987). Being autonomous does not equate with being independent, since it is possible for someone to depend on a provider and still be autonomous in one’s actions (=-=Memmi, 1984-=-). For example, athletes who value their coach’s competence and experience highly can choose to let the coach make the strategic decisions and still feel self-determined in the process. It is proposed...

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...of coaching. From an applied perspective, the present review offers several potential intervention targets. Available research has already shown that the autonomy-supportive style can be taught (e.g. =-=Pelletier et al., 1986-=-; Reeve, 1998). This review has identified the various autonomysupportive coaching behaviours to be targeted in such intervention programmes. Furthermore, we have identified the needs of autonomy, com...