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...fillscertain functions and create positive climates. At the collective level, organizational culture and values are important fundamental human processes, which influencesleaders and followers (e.g., =-=Schein, 2010-=-). Various elements of culture and values can affect or influence thesappointment and emergence of various types of leaderssand the organizational leadership philosophy and approachs(e.g., Jarnagin & ...

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... individuals such as rulers ofscountries and nations (e.g., kings/queens, politicians and government officials, and dictators) as well as revolutionaries,smilitary leaders, and some social reformers (=-=Bass, 2008-=-). Thereswas really no attention paid to the leadership of typical, everyday, lay, or informal leaders or to leaders of lower status orsthose at lower hierarchical levels below the highest levels insb...

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...things with one another. Another way to think of this overallsdefinition is in terms of a simple Venn diagram of threesintersecting circles—labeled as leader (L), followers (F),sand situation (S; see =-=Hollander, 1978-=-). Each of the “twoway” intersections of circles is interesting and an importantselement for the definition: L × S connotes that the leader’ssbehavior is a function of his or her knowledge, skills, an...

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...t decade and beyond. Key Issues First, we have many empirical studies (quantitative, qualitative, and meta-analyses) on leadership, but theory is stillsahead of data (see Yammarino & Dansereau, 2009;s=-=Yammarino et al., 2005-=-). There remains the lack of a significant number of studies integrating qualitative and quantitative methods, using lab and field experimental designssand systematic manipulations to determine causal...

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...ANIA STATE UNIV on May 10, 2016jlo.sagepub.comDownloaded fromsYammarino 151 In the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, another set of ideassemerged in leadership research involving other levels ofsanalysis (see =-=Dansereau, Alutto, & Yammarino, 1984-=-;sDansereau & Yammarino, 1998a, 1998b; Yammarino et al.,s2005). First, some research, perhaps best captured by thesnotion of substitutes for leadership (e.g., Dionne,sYammarino, Atwater, & James, 2002...

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...epub.comDownloaded fromsYammarino 151 In the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, another set of ideassemerged in leadership research involving other levels ofsanalysis (see Dansereau, Alutto, & Yammarino, 1984;s=-=Dansereau & Yammarino, 1998-=-a, 1998b; Yammarino et al.,s2005). First, some research, perhaps best captured by thesnotion of substitutes for leadership (e.g., Dionne,sYammarino, Atwater, & James, 2002; Kerr & Jermier,s1978), sugg...

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...gh the field is much more cognizant ofscontext, most leadership research is still conducted as if itsis context free rather than context dependent or contextsspecific (e.g., Schaubroeck et al., 2012; =-=Yammarino, 1994-=-).sAnd when context is assessed, it is still rather slim in termssof examining both the proximal and distal context. Do wesreally know when and where one of these three views ofsleadership (i.e., cont...

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...htforward. There is a prominence of levels of analysis both insthis definition and in leadership research in general (seesDionne, Chun, et al., 2012; Gooty, Serban, Shumski, Gavin,s& Yammarino, 2012; =-=Yammarino & Dansereau, 2008-=-). Assnoted by Yammarino et al. (2005) in a review of researchson 17 major leadership approaches, “Theory without levelssof analysis is incomplete; data without levels of analysis issincomprehensible”...

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...e an increased research focus on e-leadership, whichsis critical in a virtual, distributed, and non-colocated world;son cultural similarity and the universality of leadership in as“flat” world (e.g., =-=Dorfman et al., 2012-=-; Steers et al., 2012);sand on leadership in extreme and unusual contexts andscases (e.g., on a voyage to Mars; in a world of biological– chemical–radiological–nuclear terrorism; for assassinatedslead...

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...l heroes fromsmythology throughout history possess the universal characteristics and attributes we admire and desire in leaders. Suchsmythopoetic leaders create and sustain highly effective cultures (=-=Jarnagin & Slocum, 2007-=-). 471559 JLO20210.1177/1548051812471559Journalsof Leadership & Organizational StudiesYammarino © The Authors 2013 Reprints and permission: http://www. sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav 1Binghamton ...

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...ower) dyadssindependent of the work group as freestanding interpersonalsrelationships. This is sometimes called the independent ors“pure” dyad perspective on leadership (e.g., Dansereau et al.,s1984; =-=Gooty & Yammarino, 2011-=-; Yammarino & Dansereau,s2009). A key notion here is that the leader, even though hesor she was a part of multiple dyads in a group, did not solelyscontrol these relationships. Each relationship was u...

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...h focus on e-leadership, whichsis critical in a virtual, distributed, and non-colocated world;son cultural similarity and the universality of leadership in as“flat” world (e.g., Dorfman et al., 2012; =-=Steers et al., 2012-=-);sand on leadership in extreme and unusual contexts andscases (e.g., on a voyage to Mars; in a world of biological– chemical–radiological–nuclear terrorism; for assassinatedsleaders; or for leaders w...

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...s in humans, it is likely that no leadershipsgene nor perhaps combination of genes for leadership exist,sbut biology and evolution still play a key role in our successsas leaders and followers (e.g., =-=Lawrence, 2010-=-; Yammarinos& Dansereau, 2009, 2011). Moreover, research will likely return to focus on theshero, actually the “new hero”—the ethical, moral, professional, “green”, socially responsible, and 3P (peopl...

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...onstructs and relationships, levels of measurement forsvariables, advanced multilevel data analytic techniques,sand levels of issues in inference drawing about leaderships(Dionne, Chun, et al., 2012; =-=Gooty et al., 2012-=-; Yammarinoset al., 2005). Third, culture and leadership remains an underresearched area. Although the GLOBE project (Dorfman,sJavidan, Hanges, Dastmalchian, & House, 2012; House,sHanges, Javidan, Dor...

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...t very good. Fifth, although the field is much more cognizant ofscontext, most leadership research is still conducted as if itsis context free rather than context dependent or contextsspecific (e.g., =-=Schaubroeck et al., 2012-=-; Yammarino, 1994).sAnd when context is assessed, it is still rather slim in termssof examining both the proximal and distal context. Do wesreally know when and where one of these three views ofsleade...

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... continuing on all these new multilevel views of leadership. Born Versus Made Throughout this more than a century of leadership research,sa key question often asked (e.g., Bass, 2008; Campbell,s1949; =-=Yammarino & Dansereau, 2009-=-) is this: Are leaderssborn or made? The answer is yes, all leaders are born andsall leaders are made! Leaders begin with a base level ofscompetencies, typically linked to heredity and early lifesexpe...