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...est in critical thinking iss“directly related to the concept of self-efficacy or a self evaluation of one’sscompetence to successfully execute a course of action necessary to reachsdesired outcomes” (=-=Bandura, 1977-=-, p. 195). Instructors can create environments to enhance self-efficacy and teach critical thinking (Reid & Anderson,s2012) as well as evaluate critical thinking levels (Bell, Kelton, McDonagh,sMladen...

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... optimization models and technical rationality toward cognitive processes that emphasize thinking and engagement in practice to convert experience into useful mental maps (Clandinin & Connelly, 1986; =-=Schön, 1987-=-;sYanow & Tsoukas, 2009). This leads to the opposing position, that we term the theory inhibitive perspective, which asserts that traditional pedagogical approaches to teachingsstrategy provide useful...

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...Grzeda 3 produces more mechanical approaches to evaluation leading to homogeneitysrather than critical thinking and innovation, an unintended yet unfortunatesoutcome of common pedagogical approaches (=-=Mintzberg, 1994-=-). Elias (2008) demonstrated that students’ interest in critical thinking iss“directly related to the concept of self-efficacy or a self evaluation of one’sscompetence to successfully execute a course...

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...ed, layered, and blended approachscentered on integrating reflection in teaching strategy. We present our proposal as a classification of standard strategy evaluation tools based onsBloom’s Taxonomy (=-=Bloom, 1956-=-) that illuminates value of each in generating reflective thinking. We argue that applying this classification in casesanalysis encourages students to incorporate more reflective thinking toolsswhen t...

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...wledge and analytical skills, it is widely acknowledged that these courses fail tosdevelop the implementation skills needed in the field (Greiner, Bhambri, &sCummings, 2003; Mintzberg & Gosling 2002; =-=Porter & McKibben, 1988-=-). Insthis respect, it would appear that some and perhaps many Masters in BusinesssAdministration (MBA) strategic management courses are designed to adequately integrate the core business disciplines ...

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...unities. The strategy layers model we propose appears to be aligned with facets ofsdesign thinking and its chaotic approach to innovation through three phases:sinspiration, ideas, and implementation (=-=Brown, 2008-=-). The application of traditional strategic tools can provide the inspiration for finding opportunities,schallenges, and constraints. With additional probing questions, educators cansstimulate reflect...

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...ers are all examples of normative frameworks in which strategy emergessfollowing a series of sequential, rational, and analytical processes aimed atsidentifying and evaluating strategic alternatives (=-=Hitt & Tyler, 1991-=-). Thesvalue of these tools lies in their capacity to develop the students’ theoreticalsknowledge, that is, how the business disciplines and functions contribute toseffective strategic decisions (Kach...

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...ategic management process, that is, analysissand implementation (Greiner et al., 2003). Several authors have argued the need to impose critical thinking, action,sand reflection in business education (=-=Barnett, 1997-=-; Braun, 2004; Inamdar &sRoldan, 2013) with some proposing that there is little evidence of their uses(Case, 2005; Inamdar & Roldan, 2013; Reid & Anderson, 2012). One explanation refers to the ambiguo...

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... This approach will developsthe students’ capacity to apply an integrated framework in strategic management, among the most prominent objectives associated with capstone strategic management courses (=-=Thompson et al., 2010-=-). However, as with anysother tool, instructors are challenged to create an environment conducive toscritical thinking through questioning and other means (Angelo, 1995). Tosovercome these challenges,...

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...chessto Strategic Management Education Contemporary strategic management textbooks typically adopted in capstonesstrategy MBA courses (De Kluyver & Pearce II, 2009; Gamble, Thompson,s& Peteraf, 2013; =-=Mintzberg, Lampel, Quinn, & Ghoshal, 2003-=-; Thompson,sStrickland, & Gamble, 2010) describe a strategic framework that includes ansanalytical process relying on several prescribed tools and expects the studentsto arrive at a list of strategic ...

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...sent at least eight dimensions ofsstrategy implementation, for example, decisions about structure, leadership,spolicies, procedures, incentives, roles, culture, monitoring, and control systems (e.g., =-=David, 2011-=-; Thompson et al., 2010). The literature also describessa logical approach to implementation decisions that isolates and links strategyswith each of these areas, sometimes positioning decisions around...

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...tion is but one example withsseveral others that have been offered to evaluate reflection on a continuums(Bell et al., 2011; Gadzella & Masten, 1998; Kember et al., 1999; Maclellan,s2004; Moon, 2005; =-=Watson & Glaser, 1980-=-; Yanow & Tsoukas, 2009). Thesintensity of reflection as it relates to deep learning will depend on the students’ interest, experience, knowledge, and willingness to reflect (Elias,s2008; Entwistle, 2...

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...hiller, 2009) or informationssystems (Swinarski, 2008). Through the emphasis it places on reasoning andscritical thinking or “periodically stepping back to ponder the meaning ofswhat has transpired” (=-=Raelin, 2001-=-, p. 11), reflection embeds knowledge in asdeeper understanding of concept and theories. Some tools in strategy evaluation tend to encourage reflective activities, for example, TOWS (threats,sopportun...

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...t EducationsThe solution we propose can be found in a combination of approachessblending both theoretical and artistic domains. One example of this dual orsblended process, the design-thinking model (=-=Beckman & Barry, 2007-=-),sdescribes an alternative roadmap to arrive at new levels of innovation. The design process has both analytic and synthetic elements, and . . . operatessin both the theoretical and practical realms....

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...hesis, and evaluation that, we theorize, results from the conscious application of reflection. Table 1 covers a range of tools that have appeared previously in similarstaxonomies and categorizations (=-=Gray, 2007-=-; Knott, 2006). In proposing thisscategorization of the various tools used in analyzing and formulating strategy,swe argue that Bloom’s taxonomy reveals the need to develop and support classroom proce...

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...retical and conceptual knowledge and analytical skills, it is widely acknowledged that these courses fail tosdevelop the implementation skills needed in the field (Greiner, Bhambri, &sCummings, 2003; =-=Mintzberg & Gosling 2002-=-; Porter & McKibben, 1988). Insthis respect, it would appear that some and perhaps many Masters in BusinesssAdministration (MBA) strategic management courses are designed to adequately integrate the c...

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...nt process, that is, analysissand implementation (Greiner et al., 2003). Several authors have argued the need to impose critical thinking, action,sand reflection in business education (Barnett, 1997; =-=Braun, 2004-=-; Inamdar &sRoldan, 2013) with some proposing that there is little evidence of their uses(Case, 2005; Inamdar & Roldan, 2013; Reid & Anderson, 2012). One explanation refers to the ambiguous and comple...

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...ow & Tsoukas, 2009). Thesintensity of reflection as it relates to deep learning will depend on the students’ interest, experience, knowledge, and willingness to reflect (Elias,s2008; Entwistle, 2010; =-=Marton, 1976-=-). While business programs are free to choose the level of depth that theysfind most appropriate and are capable of measuring, we argue for the need tosmove beyond memorization, regurgitation, and sur...

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...ic management courses (Thompson et al., 2010). However, as with anysother tool, instructors are challenged to create an environment conducive toscritical thinking through questioning and other means (=-=Angelo, 1995-=-). Tosovercome these challenges, instructors often expect students to integrate content drawn from the range of courses (Ross & Rosenbloom, 2011), which issthe beginning of a reflective approach. Howe...

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...ses are designed to adequately integrate the core business disciplines but fail to fully integrate thestwo core orientations of the strategic management process, that is, analysissand implementation (=-=Greiner et al., 2003-=-). Several authors have argued the need to impose critical thinking, action,sand reflection in business education (Barnett, 1997; Braun, 2004; Inamdar &sRoldan, 2013) with some proposing that there is...

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...dan, 2013; Reid & Anderson, 2012). One explanation refers to the ambiguous and complex requirements of critical thinkingsand reflection that typically run counter to student preferences (Elias, 2008;s=-=Grey & French, 1996-=-; Rippin, Booth, Bowie, & Jordan, 2002), often basedson largely anti-intellectual attitudes and a penchant for memorization andsstructured thinking. This tendency toward memorization and structuresat ...

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...the need to impose critical thinking, action,sand reflection in business education (Barnett, 1997; Braun, 2004; Inamdar &sRoldan, 2013) with some proposing that there is little evidence of their uses(=-=Case, 2005-=-; Inamdar & Roldan, 2013; Reid & Anderson, 2012). One explanation refers to the ambiguous and complex requirements of critical thinkingsand reflection that typically run counter to student preferences...

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...erson, 2012). One explanation refers to the ambiguous and complex requirements of critical thinkingsand reflection that typically run counter to student preferences (Elias, 2008;sGrey & French, 1996; =-=Rippin, Booth, Bowie, & Jordan, 2002-=-), often basedson largely anti-intellectual attitudes and a penchant for memorization andsstructured thinking. This tendency toward memorization and structuresat PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 4, 20...

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... number of problems andsat PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 4, 2016jme.sagepub.comDownloaded fromsAlbert and Grzeda 5 opportunities do not, on their own, lead to reflection, diagnosis, and synthesiss(=-=Crittenden & Crittenden, 2008-=-; Greenley, 1987; Hitt & Tyler, 1991; Surma,s2009). While the theory acquisitive perspective develops a compelling argument and seems to be well embedded in MBA programs, on its own it fails tosadequa...

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...Inamdar & Roldan, 2013; Reid & Anderson, 2012). One explanation refers to the ambiguous and complex requirements of critical thinkingsand reflection that typically run counter to student preferences (=-=Elias, 2008-=-;sGrey & French, 1996; Rippin, Booth, Bowie, & Jordan, 2002), often basedson largely anti-intellectual attitudes and a penchant for memorization andsstructured thinking. This tendency toward memorizat...

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...ng approaches valued in higher education teaching and learning disciplines as a critical dimension in achievingshigher levels of student engagement building a stronger foundation for student success (=-=Entwistle, 2010-=-). In this light, we explore the integration of the two main streams of thinking as a basis for developing a strategic management education conceptualsmodel that leads to an inventory of reflective le...

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...on of reflection is but one example withsseveral others that have been offered to evaluate reflection on a continuums(Bell et al., 2011; Gadzella & Masten, 1998; Kember et al., 1999; Maclellan,s2004; =-=Moon, 2005-=-; Watson & Glaser, 1980; Yanow & Tsoukas, 2009). Thesintensity of reflection as it relates to deep learning will depend on the students’ interest, experience, knowledge, and willingness to reflect (El...

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...ng may help the student transitionsfrom analysis to application. This approach to defining a method for teachingsstrategy reorients the traditional textbook model (e.g., De Kluyver & PearcesII, 2009; =-=Gamble et al., 2013-=-) by increasing the emphasis on strategic management options and evaluation, that is, where should we go and how do wesget there. Each of these pillars is now discussed in turn. Positioning involves a...

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...1991). Thesvalue of these tools lies in their capacity to develop the students’ theoreticalsknowledge, that is, how the business disciplines and functions contribute toseffective strategic decisions (=-=Kachra & Schnietz, 2008-=-). Where these tools fall short is in their failure to effectively contribute tosmore complex practical integration, as manifested in decision-making styles.sWe extend Kachra and Schnietz’s (2008) ana...

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...o argue for a move awaysfrom optimization models and technical rationality toward cognitive processes that emphasize thinking and engagement in practice to convert experience into useful mental maps (=-=Clandinin & Connelly, 1986-=-; Schön, 1987;sYanow & Tsoukas, 2009). This leads to the opposing position, that we term the theory inhibitive perspective, which asserts that traditional pedagogical approaches to teachingsstrategy p...

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...valuation that, we theorize, results from the conscious application of reflection. Table 1 covers a range of tools that have appeared previously in similarstaxonomies and categorizations (Gray, 2007; =-=Knott, 2006-=-). In proposing thisscategorization of the various tools used in analyzing and formulating strategy,swe argue that Bloom’s taxonomy reveals the need to develop and support classroom processes that enc...

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..., action,sand reflection in business education (Barnett, 1997; Braun, 2004; Inamdar &sRoldan, 2013) with some proposing that there is little evidence of their uses(Case, 2005; Inamdar & Roldan, 2013; =-=Reid & Anderson, 2012-=-). One explanation refers to the ambiguous and complex requirements of critical thinkingsand reflection that typically run counter to student preferences (Elias, 2008;sGrey & French, 1996; Rippin, Boo...

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...onducive toscritical thinking through questioning and other means (Angelo, 1995). Tosovercome these challenges, instructors often expect students to integrate content drawn from the range of courses (=-=Ross & Rosenbloom, 2011-=-), which issthe beginning of a reflective approach. However, this level of integration onlyspartially addresses the concerns raised in Mintzberg, Ahlstrand, and Lampels(1998), that we need to properly...

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...his context, synthesis concernsslinking the domains of analysis/formulation and implementation/execution.sBuilding these links is a facet of strategy education that is often lackings(Hrebiniak, 2005; =-=Seaton & Boyd, 2008-=-). According to Boyd et al. (2001),sinstructors may at times “feel confident when teaching their students how tosconduct a competitive analysis but less certain when teaching students howsto develop s...

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...cess for students in business strategy courses. Insdeveloping this model, we emphasize the concept of reflective learning, aspedagogical strategy closely associated with deep level learning outcomess(=-=Garcia, 2009-=-). Our pedagogical approach acknowledges the role of strategicsmanagement theory while reinforcing the exercise of critical thinking throughsprobing questions and use of reflective thinking tools in r...

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...ack into the realm of practice in thesform of artifacts or institutions. (p. 27) In the design-thinking process, participants initially engage in explorationsand crystallization through conversation (=-=Golsby-Smith, 2007-=-), whereassproblem-based learning and situationism assist in transferring acquiredsknowledge (Bienengräber, 2013). Strategic management pedagogy thatsemphasizes reflective practices may more clearly r...

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...rnal of Management EducationsThis question has been widely discussed and debated in the literature withsopposing positions centered on the role of strategic management theory in theslearning process (=-=Grant, 2008-=-; Lewis, 2011). Is it possible to improve criticalsthinking in business strategy courses by moving away from homogenizedscase studies and mechanistic thinking that lead to inadequate recommendations a...

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...impose critical thinking, action,sand reflection in business education (Barnett, 1997; Braun, 2004; Inamdar &sRoldan, 2013) with some proposing that there is little evidence of their uses(Case, 2005; =-=Inamdar & Roldan, 2013-=-; Reid & Anderson, 2012). One explanation refers to the ambiguous and complex requirements of critical thinkingsand reflection that typically run counter to student preferences (Elias, 2008;sGrey & Fr...

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...social, political and/or cultural forces. (p. 206) This multilevel conceptualization of reflection is but one example withsseveral others that have been offered to evaluate reflection on a continuums(=-=Bell et al., 2011-=-; Gadzella & Masten, 1998; Kember et al., 1999; Maclellan,s2004; Moon, 2005; Watson & Glaser, 1980; Yanow & Tsoukas, 2009). Thesintensity of reflection as it relates to deep learning will depend on th...

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... participants initially engage in explorationsand crystallization through conversation (Golsby-Smith, 2007), whereassproblem-based learning and situationism assist in transferring acquiredsknowledge (=-=Bienengräber, 2013-=-). Strategic management pedagogy thatsemphasizes reflective practices may more clearly reveal whether, based onsthe evidence they encounter, learners are able to construct accurate mentalsmodels that ...

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...an create environments to enhance self-efficacy and teach critical thinking (Reid & Anderson,s2012) as well as evaluate critical thinking levels (Bell, Kelton, McDonagh,sMladenovic, & Morrison, 2011; =-=Gadzella & Masten, 1998-=-; Kember et al.,s1999). Such efforts lead to deep learning approaches valued in higher education teaching and learning disciplines as a critical dimension in achievingshigher levels of student engagem...

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...ing and problem solving are solidified when the student is able to form deeper mentalsmodels and concept maps (McLaren, Vuong, & Grant, 2007), and when theslearner is part of a collaborative process (=-=Gilbert, 2013-=-; Yanow & Tsoukas,s2009). This form of systems thinking calls on students to find solutions thatsaccount for all root causes and their interconnections (Batra, Kaushik, &sKalia, 2010). Understanding t...

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...SYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 4, 2016jme.sagepub.comDownloaded fromsAlbert and Grzeda 5 opportunities do not, on their own, lead to reflection, diagnosis, and synthesiss(Crittenden & Crittenden, 2008; =-=Greenley, 1987-=-; Hitt & Tyler, 1991; Surma,s2009). While the theory acquisitive perspective develops a compelling argument and seems to be well embedded in MBA programs, on its own it fails tosadequately develop the...

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...ness policy. In this context, synthesis concernsslinking the domains of analysis/formulation and implementation/execution.sBuilding these links is a facet of strategy education that is often lackings(=-=Hrebiniak, 2005-=-; Seaton & Boyd, 2008). According to Boyd et al. (2001),sinstructors may at times “feel confident when teaching their students how tosconduct a competitive analysis but less certain when teaching stud...

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...ement EducationsThis question has been widely discussed and debated in the literature withsopposing positions centered on the role of strategic management theory in theslearning process (Grant, 2008; =-=Lewis, 2011-=-). Is it possible to improve criticalsthinking in business strategy courses by moving away from homogenizedscase studies and mechanistic thinking that lead to inadequate recommendations and implementa...

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... 2016jme.sagepub.comDownloaded froms10 Journal of Management Educationshave distinct and essential characteristics that, although not offering a completesanswer in themselves, complement each other” (=-=Maranville, 2011-=-, p. 786). Thesscientific method helps us organize data and construct a picture from information. Synthesis, a form of reflection and art, refers to deriving meaningsfrom information and reconstructin...

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...ion through questioning andsinvolved deliberation (Yanow & Tsoukas, 2009). Critical thinking and problem solving are solidified when the student is able to form deeper mentalsmodels and concept maps (=-=McLaren, Vuong, & Grant, 2007-=-), and when theslearner is part of a collaborative process (Gilbert, 2013; Yanow & Tsoukas,s2009). This form of systems thinking calls on students to find solutions thatsaccount for all root causes an...

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...roblems and restructure action strategiess(Garcia, 2009). It is often integrated within business programs as a requirement in courses such as virtual commerce (Schiller, 2009) or informationssystems (=-=Swinarski, 2008-=-). Through the emphasis it places on reasoning andscritical thinking or “periodically stepping back to ponder the meaning ofswhat has transpired” (Raelin, 2001, p. 11), reflection embeds knowledge in ...

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...nded Perspective Research on teaching and learning has in fact identified that students need ascombination of the two perspectives of theory acquisition and theory inhibitive models (Entwistle, 2010; =-=Weimer, 2010-=-). Beginning with a serialistsapproach that introduces the theory acquisitive content, the student is thensexposed to the holistic approach that emphasizes the theory inhibitivesat PENNSYLVANIA STATE ...