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... including spatial processing, and a ventral stream, optimized for objects(or pattern) recognition (see Fig. 1.1). This dual-stream organization resembles the functionalsorganization of visual cortex =-=(38, 39)-=- and suggests greater homologies between the sensory systemssthan could previously be assumed. Recent perspectives on speech processing have incorporated thesdual stream architecture of auditory corte...

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...s deformations and sensitivity to categorytransformative deformations (47). Further, because hierarchical processing implies increasings3srepresentational complexity along the auditory ventral stream =-=(23, 45, 48)-=-, where possible, I assesssprocessing for phonemes, words, and phrases separately. As phoneme recognition is a prerequisite ofsword recognition, it should localize to an area proximate to primary audi...

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...ensory environment in an essentially unsupervised manner,scortex must apply a bottom-up learning algorithm. Temporally extensive variants of Hebbian learning,snamely spike-timing-dependent plasticity =-=(49, 50)-=- and trace (44, 51, 52), have been shown to bessuccessful at training hierarchical feature networks for invariant pattern recognition. These learningsrules operate by detecting regular co-occurrences ...

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...respect to neural adaptation phenomena (46), which can be used to probestolerance for non-category–transformative physical stimulus deformations and sensitivity to categorytransformative deformations =-=(47)-=-. Further, because hierarchical processing implies increasings3srepresentational complexity along the auditory ventral stream (23, 45, 48), where possible, I assesssprocessing for phonemes, words, and...

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... (i.e., an auditory word-formsarea) should exist with properties comparable to those identified for the visual word-form area (8) and,smore generally, pattern recognition in the visual ventral stream =-=(44, 45)-=-. Specifically, it shouldsdemonstrate selectivity and invariance, that is, selective response to auditory word-form stimuli andsinvariant response to word-form exemplars that differ in exact spectro-t...

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...sa cortical region supporting sensory aspects of auditory word recognition (i.e., an auditory word-formsarea) should exist with properties comparable to those identified for the visual word-form area =-=(8)-=- and,smore generally, pattern recognition in the visual ventral stream (44, 45). Specifically, it shouldsdemonstrate selectivity and invariance, that is, selective response to auditory word-form stimu...

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...nd suggests greater homologies between the sensory systemssthan could previously be assumed. Recent perspectives on speech processing have incorporated thesdual stream architecture of auditory cortex =-=(23, 27, 40, 41)-=-, making it the consensus view [but see,s(42)]. Conclusions about the course of the auditory ventral stream, however, differ. As noted, somesauthors conclude auditory word-form recognition occurs in p...

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...al findings (55-57) and from a hierarchical functional localizer by Chevillet and colleaguesʼ (58).sThe localizer leverages differential bandwidth and complexity tuning across core, belt and parabelt =-=(30)-=- andsvolume estimates for core (59, 60) to infer core, belt, and parabelt localization. Subfield delineation is estimatedsfrom relative field sizes in the macaque. For orientation, regional anatomy is...

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...archical functional localizer by Chevillet and colleaguesʼ (58).sThe localizer leverages differential bandwidth and complexity tuning across core, belt and parabelt (30) andsvolume estimates for core =-=(59, 60)-=- to infer core, belt, and parabelt localization. Subfield delineation is estimatedsfrom relative field sizes in the macaque. For orientation, regional anatomy is shown in (c), including the centralssu...

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...udies localize processing of multi-segmentalsforms to anterior STG/superior temporal sulcus (STS). This can be seen in peak activation to wordforms in both ECoG (108) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) =-=(109)-=-. FMRI investigations ofsstimulus complexity, comparing activation to word-form and pure-tone stimuli, report similarslocalization (23, 110, 111). Invariant tuning for word-forms, as inferred from fMR...

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...eed (14-22). Arguably, inquiry into auditory word-form recognition hassprogressed more slowly because a clear conflict emerged between results from functional imagings(23, 24) and classical neurology =-=(25, 26)-=-, which led to a balkanization of the speech perception fieldsinto three competing perspectives. The first perspective maintains posterior superior temporalsgyrus/sulcus (STG/STS) as the site of audit...

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... (i.e., an auditory word-formsarea) should exist with properties comparable to those identified for the visual word-form area (8) and,smore generally, pattern recognition in the visual ventral stream =-=(44, 45)-=-. Specifically, it shouldsdemonstrate selectivity and invariance, that is, selective response to auditory word-form stimuli andsinvariant response to word-form exemplars that differ in exact spectro-t...

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...stigated letter and word recognition in a single sample, support for the dissociation is present insthe literature. The visual word form area (VWFA), the putative site of visual word-form recognition =-=(7)-=-,sis located in the left fusiform gyrus of inferior temporal cortex (IT) (21). Consistent with expectation, thesaverage site of peak activation to single letters in IT (18, 172-177) is more proximal t...

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...temporal form. Selectivity issassessed with respect to either acoustically matched artificial stimuli or non-speech natural stimuli.sInvariance is assessed with respect to neural adaptation phenomena =-=(46)-=-, which can be used to probestolerance for non-category–transformative physical stimulus deformations and sensitivity to categorytransformative deformations (47). Further, because hierarchical process...

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...ls of thesprocessing hierarchy. From this observation, predictions can be made about the feature combinationssactually instantiated in cortex. Results from single word reading comport with this model =-=(8, 17)-=-. Mys1 In this context, simple and complex is used according to standard usage (i.e., non-compound vs. compoundscomposition) and should not be confused with technical usage relating to simple and comp...

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...us (SMG), HG, PT, STG and STS. The inset bounds the region displayed in (b).s6sFig. 1.2.sIn the macaque, communication call processing is strongly associated with anterior-lateral portions STs(upper) =-=(35)-=-. The putatively homologous human site resides at the anterior-lateral aspect of Heschlʼs gyruss(middle) (55). This site is distinct from both the predictions of classical neurology (lower, right) (37...

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...ensory environment in an essentially unsupervised manner,scortex must apply a bottom-up learning algorithm. Temporally extensive variants of Hebbian learning,snamely spike-timing-dependent plasticity =-=(49, 50)-=- and trace (44, 51, 52), have been shown to bessuccessful at training hierarchical feature networks for invariant pattern recognition. These learningsrules operate by detecting regular co-occurrences ...

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...n the hypothesis thatsauditory and visual word recognition are equivalent problems with similar cortical solutions. This issconducted both as a wide-ranging review and as a quantitative meta-analysis =-=(43)-=-. I hypothesize thatsa cortical region supporting sensory aspects of auditory word recognition (i.e., an auditory word-formsarea) should exist with properties comparable to those identified for the vi...

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...ional mean for that scale (for additional details, see Suppl. Methods). The five non-wordsconditions were defined as being (1) irregular at all measured scales, (2) regular only at the diphonesscale, =-=(3)-=- regular only at the di- and triphone scales, (4) regular only at the di-, tri-, and tetraphonesscales, or (5) regular at all measured scales. Illegitimate sequences in English were excluded (e.g.,sph...

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...echanisticsinvestigations to proceed (14-22). Arguably, inquiry into auditory word-form recognition hassprogressed more slowly because a clear conflict emerged between results from functional imagings=-=(23, 24)-=- and classical neurology (25, 26), which led to a balkanization of the speech perception fieldsinto three competing perspectives. The first perspective maintains posterior superior temporalsgyrus/sulc...

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...o wordforms in both ECoG (108) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) (109). FMRI investigations ofsstimulus complexity, comparing activation to word-form and pure-tone stimuli, report similarslocalization =-=(23, 110, 111)-=-. Invariant tuning for word-forms, as inferred from fMRI-adaptation studies,salso localizes to anterior STG/STS (112-114). Studies investigating cross-modal repetition effects forsauditory and visual ...

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...ies requiredsfor phonetic concatenation. In a rare human electrophysiology study, Creutzfeldt and colleaguess(1989) report vigorous single-unit responses to words and sentences in mid-to-anterior STG =-=(107)-=-.sThis included both feature-tuned units and late-component-tuned units. While the relative location ofsfeature and late-component units is not reported and the late component units do not clearly evi...

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...n auditory cortex (73, 81). It is alsosobserved to operate at time scales (50-250 ms) sufficient for phoneme concatenation, up to 250 ms insthe zebra finch (72) and 100-150 ms in macaque lateral belt =-=(32)-=-. Logical-OR gate-like computation,stechnically proposed to be a soft maximum operation (82-84), is posited to be performed bysspectrotemporal-pooling units. These units respond to supra-threshold sti...

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... pooling ofsnumerous, rigidly-tuned representations of different exemplars of a given phoneme into an abstractedsrepresentation of the entire pool. Spatial pooling is well documented in visual cortex =-=(48, 85, 86)-=- andsthere is some evidence for its analogue, spectrotemporal pooling, in auditory cortex (87-89), includingsthe observation of complex cells when A1 is developmentally reprogrammed as a surrogate V1 ...

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... course for theshuman ventral and dorsal streams along the superior temporal plane. Fields exhibiting heightened selectivity forsmonkey calls are shown in yellow: core area RTp (53) and belt field AL =-=(36, 54)-=-. Auditory fields diagrammed ins(a) are shown on the cortical surface (b) with parabelt (PB, BA 22) additionally outlined. Localization is estimatedsfrom anatomical findings (55-57) and from a hierarc...

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...ocation of single-subject brain imagingsresults and auditory word recognition impairments resulting from electrical interference or surgicalsresection, as has been shown for the visual word-form area =-=(15)-=-. Further, intraoperative languagesmapping has typically relied upon outcome measures which result from non-auditory tasks, namelyssingle word reading, visual object naming and speech arrest (149, 382...

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...ective, relying on exceptionally stringent criteria for modularity, asserts that a lack of sufficientsevidence exists for concluding that speech-specific processing occurs anywhere in auditory cortexs=-=(29)-=-. The present work engages this debate. It proffers a model for the neural mechanics of auditorysword-form recognition and critically assesses evidence for the localization of auditory word-forms2srec...

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...in an essentially unsupervised manner,scortex must apply a bottom-up learning algorithm. Temporally extensive variants of Hebbian learning,snamely spike-timing-dependent plasticity (49, 50) and trace =-=(44, 51, 52)-=-, have been shown to bessuccessful at training hierarchical feature networks for invariant pattern recognition. These learningsrules operate by detecting regular co-occurrences of feature combinations...

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... that scale was less thansthe distributional mean for that scale (for additional details, see Suppl. Methods). The five non-wordsconditions were defined as being (1) irregular at all measured scales, =-=(2)-=- regular only at the diphonesscale, (3) regular only at the di- and triphone scales, (4) regular only at the di-, tri-, and tetraphonesscales, or (5) regular at all measured scales. Illegitimate seque...

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...ives. The first perspective maintains posterior superior temporalsgyrus/sulcus (STG/STS) as the site of auditory word-form recognition, consistent with classical modelssof receptive speech processing =-=(27, 28)-=-. The second perspective embraces anterior STG/STS as thessite of auditory word-form recognition, consistent with results from functional imaging (23, 24). A thirdsperspective, relying on exceptionall...

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...n sensitivity to conjoin lower-ordersrepresentations and thereby to synthesize complex representations. As the tuning of higher-orderscombination-sensitive units is contingent upon sensory experience =-=(19, 155)-=-, phrases and sentencesswould not generally be processed as Gestalt-like objects. Although we have analyzed studies involvingsphrase- and sentence-level processing, their inclusion is for context and ...

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...nd suggests greater homologies between the sensory systemssthan could previously be assumed. Recent perspectives on speech processing have incorporated thesdual stream architecture of auditory cortex =-=(23, 27, 40, 41)-=-, making it the consensus view [but see,s(42)]. Conclusions about the course of the auditory ventral stream, however, differ. As noted, somesauthors conclude auditory word-form recognition occurs in p...

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...ives. The first perspective maintains posterior superior temporalsgyrus/sulcus (STG/STS) as the site of auditory word-form recognition, consistent with classical modelssof receptive speech processing =-=(27, 28)-=-. The second perspective embraces anterior STG/STS as thessite of auditory word-form recognition, consistent with results from functional imaging (23, 24). A thirdsperspective, relying on exceptionall...

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...ons. In brief, local features must be bound together tosform representations of complex spectrotemporal contours, which are themselves the constituents ofsauditory “objects” or complex sound patterns =-=(64, 65)-=-. Next, representations must be generalized andsabstracted. Coding in primary auditory cortex is sensitive even to minor physical transformations.sObject-centered coding in higher areas, however, must...

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...ditory ventral stream (334), the putative role ofsdistributional learning in word learning (see above), and reports of analogous orthotactic effects in thesvisual systemʼs pattern recognition pathway =-=(16, 17)-=- [but see (350)]. Here, we test the hypothesis thatsthe lack of reported effects in ST is attributable to an insufficient range of phonotactic manipulation forseliciting BOLD effects in ST. Accordingl...

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...oding in primary auditory cortex is sensitive even to minor physical transformations.sObject-centered coding in higher areas, however, must be invariant (i.e., tolerant of natural stimulussvariation) =-=(66)-=-. For example, while the phonemic structure of a word is fixed, there is considerablesvariation in physical, spectrotemporal form—attributable to accent, pronunciation, body size, and theslike—among u...

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...35). The putatively homologous human site resides at the anterior-lateral aspect of Heschlʼs gyruss(middle) (55). This site is distinct from both the predictions of classical neurology (lower, right) =-=(37)-=- andscontemporary neurolinguistics (lower, left) (41).s7sChapter 2sPhoneme and word recognition in the auditory ventral stream2sSpoken word recognition requires complex, invariant representations. Usi...

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...y is directionallysselective in the temporal domain is not fully understood, some propositions exist (76-80). As ansempirical matter, direction selectivity is clearly present early in auditory cortex =-=(73, 81)-=-. It is alsosobserved to operate at time scales (50-250 ms) sufficient for phoneme concatenation, up to 250 ms insthe zebra finch (72) and 100-150 ms in macaque lateral belt (32). Logical-OR gate-like...

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...echanisticsinvestigations to proceed (14-22). Arguably, inquiry into auditory word-form recognition hassprogressed more slowly because a clear conflict emerged between results from functional imagings=-=(23, 24)-=- and classical neurology (25, 26), which led to a balkanization of the speech perception fieldsinto three competing perspectives. The first perspective maintains posterior superior temporalsgyrus/sulc...

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...tity-specific repetition suppression (i.e.,srepetition effects specific to non-mirror inverted repetitions), letter and word effects differentiallyslocalize: Effects for word stimuli localize to VWFA =-=(20)-=-, whereas effects for single-letter stimuli localizesto the lateral occipital complex (179), a site closer to V1. Thus, the anatomical dissociation observed insauditory cortex for phonemes and words a...

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... pooling ofsnumerous, rigidly-tuned representations of different exemplars of a given phoneme into an abstractedsrepresentation of the entire pool. Spatial pooling is well documented in visual cortex =-=(48, 85, 86)-=- andsthere is some evidence for its analogue, spectrotemporal pooling, in auditory cortex (87-89), includingsthe observation of complex cells when A1 is developmentally reprogrammed as a surrogate V1 ...

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...4, 37, 93, 94).sSpeech-specific models generally concur (23, 27, 40, 41), creating a wide consensus that wordsrecognition is performed in the auditory ventral stream (23, 27, 37, 41, 95, 96) [but see =-=(42, 97, 98)-=-].sThe hierarchical model predicts an increase in neural receptive field size and complexity along thesventral stream. With respect to speech, there is a discontinuity in the processing demands associ...

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... andsthere is some evidence for its analogue, spectrotemporal pooling, in auditory cortex (87-89), includingsthe observation of complex cells when A1 is developmentally reprogrammed as a surrogate V1 =-=(90)-=-. Asformal equivalence is however yet to be demonstrated (91, 92).sBiology of the solution. Auditory cortexʼs predominant processing pathways, ventral and dorsal (33,s35), appear to be optimized for p...

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...c recognition occurring distal toselemental phonetic recognition.sPrimate electrophysiology identifies combination sensitivity as occurring as early as core'sssupragranular layers and in lateral belt =-=(30, 31, 73, 91)-=-. In the macaque, selectivity for communicationscalls—similar in spectrotemporal structure to phonemes or consonant-vowel (CV) syllables—issobserved in belt area AL (36) and, to an even greater degree...

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...posite figure implies a course for theshuman ventral and dorsal streams along the superior temporal plane. Fields exhibiting heightened selectivity forsmonkey calls are shown in yellow: core area RTp =-=(53)-=- and belt field AL (36, 54). Auditory fields diagrammed ins(a) are shown on the cortical surface (b) with parabelt (PB, BA 22) additionally outlined. Localization is estimatedsfrom anatomical findings...

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...as in the population activity of area AL (54, 61). Humanshomologues to these sites putatively lie on or about the anterior-lateral aspect of Heschl's gyrus and insthe area immediately posterior to it =-=(55, 58, 70, 99)-=-. Consistent with macaque electrophysiology,shuman electrocorticography (ECoG) recordings from superior temporal gyrus (STG), in the regionsimmediately posterior to the anterior-lateral aspect of Hesc...

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...the context ofsauditory cortex.sIn a hierarchical pattern-recognition scheme (45), coding in the earliest cortical field wouldsreflect the tuning and organization of primary auditory cortex (or core) =-=(62, 63, 70)-=-. That is, singleneuron receptive fields (more precisely, frequency-response areas) would be tuned to particular centersfrequencies and would have minimal spectrotemporal complexity (i.e., a single ex...

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...ons. In brief, local features must be bound together tosform representations of complex spectrotemporal contours, which are themselves the constituents ofsauditory “objects” or complex sound patterns =-=(64, 65)-=-. Next, representations must be generalized andsabstracted. Coding in primary auditory cortex is sensitive even to minor physical transformations.sObject-centered coding in higher areas, however, must...

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... phonotacticsregularity in an area strongly implicated in auditory word-form recognition, anterior STG (14, 23, 334),s59swhich is analogously part of the auditory ventral, pattern-recognition pathway =-=(33, 37)-=-. Orthotacticsexperiments, however, report more robust effects than those observed here (16, 17) [but see (350)].sAlso, we find phonotactic sensitivity in two areas of ST, as opposed to the one, VWFA,...

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... course for theshuman ventral and dorsal streams along the superior temporal plane. Fields exhibiting heightened selectivity forsmonkey calls are shown in yellow: core area RTp (53) and belt field AL =-=(36, 54)-=-. Auditory fields diagrammed ins(a) are shown on the cortical surface (b) with parabelt (PB, BA 22) additionally outlined. Localization is estimatedsfrom anatomical findings (55-57) and from a hierarc...

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...y is directionallysselective in the temporal domain is not fully understood, some propositions exist (76-80). As ansempirical matter, direction selectivity is clearly present early in auditory cortex =-=(73, 81)-=-. It is alsosobserved to operate at time scales (50-250 ms) sufficient for phoneme concatenation, up to 250 ms insthe zebra finch (72) and 100-150 ms in macaque lateral belt (32). Logical-OR gate-like...

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...entations and the variability of natural speech (see Suppl.sFig. 2.1) (61). Representation at the level of primary auditory cortex is precise: fine-grained in scalesand local in spectrotemporal space =-=(62, 63)-=-. The recognition of complex spectrotemporal forms, likeswords, in higher areas of auditory cortex requires the transformation of this granular representationsinto Gestalt-like, object-centered repres...

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...o wordforms in both ECoG (108) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) (109). FMRI investigations ofsstimulus complexity, comparing activation to word-form and pure-tone stimuli, report similarslocalization =-=(23, 110, 111)-=-. Invariant tuning for word-forms, as inferred from fMRI-adaptation studies,salso localizes to anterior STG/STS (112-114). Studies investigating cross-modal repetition effects forsauditory and visual ...

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... from superior temporal gyrus (STG), in the regionsimmediately posterior to the anterior-lateral aspect of Heschlʼs gyrus (mid STG), show the site to codesfor phoneme identity at the population level =-=(100)-=-. Mid STG is also the site of peak high-gammasactivity in response to CV sounds (101-103). Similarly, human functional imaging studies suggest leftsmid STG is involved in processing elemental speech s...

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...in an essentially unsupervised manner,scortex must apply a bottom-up learning algorithm. Temporally extensive variants of Hebbian learning,snamely spike-timing-dependent plasticity (49, 50) and trace =-=(44, 51, 52)-=-, have been shown to bessuccessful at training hierarchical feature networks for invariant pattern recognition. These learningsrules operate by detecting regular co-occurrences of feature combinations...

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...ncies > 60 ms). These unitssshould also be selective for specific phoneme orderings. Nonhuman primate data for regions rostral tosA1 confirm that latencies increase rostrally along the ventral stream =-=(53, 88, 105, 106)-=- with the medianslatency to peak response approaching 100 ms in area RT (88), consistent with the latencies requiredsfor phonetic concatenation. In a rare human electrophysiology study, Creutzfeldt an...

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...ds.sResultssBehavioral testing. As expected, no relationship was observed between reaction time (RT) for hits andsnon-word condition in the in-scanner target detection task [repeated-measures ANOVA,sF=-=(4,56)-=- = 0.67, p = 0.62] (see Fig. 3.3A). To assess validity of the non-word continuum, two post-scansbehavioral tests were administered. First, participants completed a two-alternative-forced-choiceslexica...

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...ensitive units in human STG. Imaging studies localize processing of multi-segmentalsforms to anterior STG/superior temporal sulcus (STS). This can be seen in peak activation to wordforms in both ECoG =-=(108)-=- and magnetoencephalography (MEG) (109). FMRI investigations ofsstimulus complexity, comparing activation to word-form and pure-tone stimuli, report similarslocalization (23, 110, 111). Invariant tuni...

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...sociation is present insthe literature. The visual word form area (VWFA), the putative site of visual word-form recognition (7),sis located in the left fusiform gyrus of inferior temporal cortex (IT) =-=(21)-=-. Consistent with expectation, thesaverage site of peak activation to single letters in IT (18, 172-177) is more proximal to V1, bysapproximately 13 mm. A similar anatomical dissociation can be seen i...

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...tical surface (b) with parabelt (PB, BA 22) additionally outlined. Localization is estimatedsfrom anatomical findings (55-57) and from a hierarchical functional localizer by Chevillet and colleaguesʼ =-=(58)-=-.sThe localizer leverages differential bandwidth and complexity tuning across core, belt and parabelt (30) andsvolume estimates for core (59, 60) to infer core, belt, and parabelt localization. Subfie...

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...eologisms or recently acquired words in a second language). Whereas ventral networkss20sare implicated in pattern recognition, dorsal networks are implicated in forward- and inverse-modelscomputation =-=(37, 94)-=-, including sensorimotor integration (27, 37, 41, 163). This supports a role for leftsdorsal networks in mapping auditory representations onto the somato-motor frame of reference (164168), yielding ar...

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...representation or, as the site is somewhat inferior to that of phoneme-length effects, it may bes16stentative evidence of a secondary processing pathway within the ventral stream [see Fig. 2.5C;scf., =-=(102, 128)-=-].sFourth, to assess co-localization of CS, IR, and AS, we performed length-pooled analyses (seesFig. 2.4, Suppl. Fig. 2.6 and Table 2.2). Robust CS effects were observed in STG/STS. Again, theyswere ...

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...nsSpoken word recognition presents several challenges to the brain. Two key challenges are thesassembly of complex auditory representations and the variability of natural speech (see Suppl.sFig. 2.1) =-=(61)-=-. Representation at the level of primary auditory cortex is precise: fine-grained in scalesand local in spectrotemporal space (62, 63). The recognition of complex spectrotemporal forms, likeswords, in...

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...ncies > 60 ms). These unitssshould also be selective for specific phoneme orderings. Nonhuman primate data for regions rostral tosA1 confirm that latencies increase rostrally along the ventral stream =-=(53, 88, 105, 106)-=- with the medianslatency to peak response approaching 100 ms in area RT (88), consistent with the latencies requiredsfor phonetic concatenation. In a rare human electrophysiology study, Creutzfeldt an...

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...ned as being (1) irregular at all measured scales, (2) regular only at the diphonesscale, (3) regular only at the di- and triphone scales, (4) regular only at the di-, tri-, and tetraphonesscales, or =-=(5)-=- regular at all measured scales. Illegitimate sequences in English were excluded (e.g.,sphoneme repetitions, for details, see Suppl. Methods). To reduce participantsʼ likelihood of falselysrecognizing...

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... including spatial processing, and a ventral stream, optimized for objects(or pattern) recognition (see Fig. 1.1). This dual-stream organization resembles the functionalsorganization of visual cortex =-=(38, 39)-=- and suggests greater homologies between the sensory systemssthan could previously be assumed. Recent perspectives on speech processing have incorporated thesdual stream architecture of auditory corte...

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...ssthan could previously be assumed. Recent perspectives on speech processing have incorporated thesdual stream architecture of auditory cortex (23, 27, 40, 41), making it the consensus view [but see,s=-=(42)-=-]. Conclusions about the course of the auditory ventral stream, however, differ. As noted, somesauthors conclude auditory word-form recognition occurs in posterior ST (27, 41) while others concludesit...

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... pooling, in auditory cortex (87-89), includingsthe observation of complex cells when A1 is developmentally reprogrammed as a surrogate V1 (90). Asformal equivalence is however yet to be demonstrated =-=(91, 92)-=-.sBiology of the solution. Auditory cortexʼs predominant processing pathways, ventral and dorsal (33,s35), appear to be optimized for pattern recognition and action planning respectively (31-34, 37, 9...

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... pooling, in auditory cortex (87-89), includingsthe observation of complex cells when A1 is developmentally reprogrammed as a surrogate V1 (90). Asformal equivalence is however yet to be demonstrated =-=(91, 92)-=-.sBiology of the solution. Auditory cortexʼs predominant processing pathways, ventral and dorsal (33,s35), appear to be optimized for pattern recognition and action planning respectively (31-34, 37, 9...

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...action planning respectively (31-34, 37, 93, 94).sSpeech-specific models generally concur (23, 27, 40, 41), creating a wide consensus that wordsrecognition is performed in the auditory ventral stream =-=(23, 27, 37, 41, 95, 96)-=- [but see (42, 97, 98)].sThe hierarchical model predicts an increase in neural receptive field size and complexity along thesventral stream. With respect to speech, there is a discontinuity in the pro...

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...action planning respectively (31-34, 37, 93, 94).sSpeech-specific models generally concur (23, 27, 40, 41), creating a wide consensus that wordsrecognition is performed in the auditory ventral stream =-=(23, 27, 37, 41, 95, 96)-=- [but see (42, 97, 98)].sThe hierarchical model predicts an increase in neural receptive field size and complexity along thesventral stream. With respect to speech, there is a discontinuity in the pro...

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...ncies > 60 ms). These unitssshould also be selective for specific phoneme orderings. Nonhuman primate data for regions rostral tosA1 confirm that latencies increase rostrally along the ventral stream =-=(53, 88, 105, 106)-=- with the medianslatency to peak response approaching 100 ms in area RT (88), consistent with the latencies requiredsfor phonetic concatenation. In a rare human electrophysiology study, Creutzfeldt an...

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..., see Suppl. Methods). The five non-wordsconditions were defined as being (1) irregular at all measured scales, (2) regular only at the diphonesscale, (3) regular only at the di- and triphone scales, =-=(4)-=- regular only at the di-, tri-, and tetraphonesscales, or (5) regular at all measured scales. Illegitimate sequences in English were excluded (e.g.,sphoneme repetitions, for details, see Suppl. Method...

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.../STS (112-114). Studies investigating cross-modal repetition effects forsauditory and visual stimuli confirm anterior STG/STS localization and, further, show it to be part ofsunimodal auditory cortex =-=(14, 115)-=-. Lastly, application of electrical cortical interference to anterior STGsdisrupts auditory comprehension, producing patient reports of speech as being like “a series ofsmeaningless utterances” (116)....