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...ntal images that are based on collected information (Decety, & Mick, 1989;sFortin, & Rousseau, 1989).sIt has been well documented in the literature that mental imagerysenhances athletes' performance (=-=Driskell et al., 1994-=-; Hall, 2001; Paivio,s1985). This is reflected in the frequent use of imagery reported by athletess(Barr & Hall, 1992; Hall et al., 1990) and the inclusion of imagery in mentalsskills training program...

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...layers are moresaccurate shooting to the left, and vice versa for left footed players, thus givingsrise to the terms natural side and unnatural side for the more and lesssaccurate sides respectively (=-=Chiappori et al, 2002-=-; Palacios-Huerta, 2003). Sos85sit is proposed that a player should be better able to successfully adjust, fromsshooting from the unnatural side to shooting towards the natural side, in lessstime than...

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...ts, like self-talk or breathing control (Thelwell et al., 2006; Velentzas etsal., 2011).sThe results of the present study partially corroborate those found insprevious studies (Beilcock et al., 2001; =-=Cerin et al., 2000-=-), which claim thatsnot all performance situations could be improved by imagery, only those thatsdo not require precision.sAs well, Coelho et al. (2008) also proposed a study to determineswhether an i...

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...ance when the participantscompleted a visual-interference task. Johnson’s findings support the symbolicslearning theory because he had hypothesized that images of movementsswould be primarily visual (=-=Denis, 1985-=-;sMorris et al., 2005).sIndeed, the link between mental imagery and human motorsperformance is clearly inextricable and the central precondition for thesexistence of imaginations, is the ability of ou...

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...ce efficient to thesenhancement of sports performance and motor learning (Woolfolk et al.,s1985; Paivio, 1985; Shaw & Goodfellow, 1997; Gammage et al., 2000; Taylors& Shaw, 2002; Coelho et al., 2007; =-=Greenspan & Feltz, 1989-=-; Meyers et al.,s1996; Vealey, 1994).sThus, when the movement is complex and requires more than onesfocus of attention, the imagery used must follow an adequate protocol in ordersto reach its goals an...

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...latory behaviors that backfire and reduce performance.sChoking under pressure is defined as performing worse than expectedsin situations with a high degree of perceived importance (Blaumeister, 1984;s=-=Beilock & Gray, 2007-=-).sThe results of the study showed that players with high current statussperformed worse and seemed to engage more in escapist self-regulatorysbehaviors than players with future high status. Some of t...

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...cumented in the literature that mental imagerysenhances athletes' performance (Driskell et al., 1994; Hall, 2001; Paivio,s1985). This is reflected in the frequent use of imagery reported by athletess(=-=Barr & Hall, 1992-=-; Hall et al., 1990) and the inclusion of imagery in mentalsskills training programs implemented by sport psychologists (e.g., Gould et al,s1990; Kendall et al., 1990). It is not surprising that image...

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...he ability to generate high muscular strength within short timesperiods is of functional importance not only as a basic quality in many sportssdisciplines but also for active stabilization of joints (=-=Gruber & Gollhofer, 2004-=-,sp. 98).s38sIn 1894, the psychoneuromuscular theory originated with Carpenter (asscited in Hale, 1982) proposed the ideo-motor principle of imagery. Accordingsto this principle, imagery facilitates t...

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...all & Fishburne, 2010). Coaches have indicatedsthat they used imagery more than any other mental training technique, andsfelt that imagery was the most useful technique they used with their athletess(=-=Bloom et al., 1997-=-; Hall & Rodgers, 1989).sHumans are capable of imitating the motor actions of others, becausesthe mind “photographs” the motor skill and uses it as foundation of thesperformance. Athletes use imagery ...

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...Many researches proved the existence of an association between thescontent of imagery and self-confidence and anxiety levels in elite athletess(Vealey, 1986; Moritz et al., 1996; Vadocz et al., 1997; =-=Callow & Hardy, 2001-=-;sCallow & Waters, 2005). Furthermore, several personal characteristics havesbeen shown to influence the use of mental training by athletes. Obviously,sself-motivation is a big factor in predicting ad...

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...sic quality in many sportssdisciplines but also for active stabilization of joints (Gruber & Gollhofer, 2004,sp. 98).s38sIn 1894, the psychoneuromuscular theory originated with Carpenter (asscited in =-=Hale, 1982-=-) proposed the ideo-motor principle of imagery. Accordingsto this principle, imagery facilitates the learning of motor skills because of thesnature of the neuromuscular activity patterns activated dur...

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...e herself making critical error, or a runnersmight experience an overwhelming sense of fatigue in the last leg of a race.sSuch negative images are counterproductive, serving only to hurtsperformance (=-=Beilock et al., 2001-=-; Short et al., 2002).sImagery is a part of sport psychology skill (mental skill), where it effectsto athletes to success in their tournament or game. In addition, many athletessand coaches today reco...

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...n earlyspsychophysiological studies such as those by Edmund Jacobson (1930a, b, c,sd, 1931a, b, c), Shaw (1938, 1940), and Allers and Scheminsky (1926), butsothers have proposed similar explanations (=-=Corbin, 1972-=-; Schmidt & Lee,s1999). These psychoneuromuscular theories propose that the efficacy ofsimagery rehearsal of a motor task is due to feedback that results from thesminute muscle innervations (identical...

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...tspractising at all. There has also been research that has shown that combiningsphysical and mental practice is more beneficial to performance of a motor skillsthan just physical practice on its own (=-=Blair et al., 1993-=-).sMore recent meta-analyses (e.g., Driskell et al., 1994; Hinshaw, 1991)shave supported the conclusion that for tasks with a great deal of cognitivescomponents the best uses of imagery involve a comp...

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...ive to facilitative andschallenging (Evans et al., 2004; Hale & Whitehouse, 1998; Nideffer, 1981;sPage et al., 1999).sFurthermore, imagery has been shown to be effective in enhancingsself-confidence (=-=Callow et al., 2001-=-; Evans et al., 2004; Garza & Feltz, 1998;sHale & Whitehouse, 1998; McKenzie & Howe, 1997; Short et al., 2002),smotivation (Martin & Hall, 1995), the ability to maintain concentration in sportstasks (...

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... the existence of an association between thescontent of imagery and self-confidence and anxiety levels in elite athletess(Vealey, 1986; Moritz et al., 1996; Vadocz et al., 1997; Callow & Hardy, 2001;s=-=Callow & Waters, 2005-=-). Furthermore, several personal characteristics havesbeen shown to influence the use of mental training by athletes. Obviously,sself-motivation is a big factor in predicting adherence to mental train...

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...s et al., 2004; Hale & Whitehouse, 1998; Nideffer, 1981;sPage et al., 1999).sFurthermore, imagery has been shown to be effective in enhancingsself-confidence (Callow et al., 2001; Evans et al., 2004; =-=Garza & Feltz, 1998-=-;sHale & Whitehouse, 1998; McKenzie & Howe, 1997; Short et al., 2002),smotivation (Martin & Hall, 1995), the ability to maintain concentration in sportstasks (Calmels et al., 2004; Farrow & Kemp, 2003...

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...rams increase the importances15sthat athletes place on using mental training techniques and strategies, as wellsas their intentions to use these techniques and strategies (Brewers&sShillinglaw, 1992; =-=Gould et al, 1990-=-; Grove et al., 1999; Vealey, 2007).sFurthermore, improvement in the following sport skills has beensdocumented through mental practice: tennis serving, volleyball serving,ssoccer placekicking,sbasket...

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...he most widely-researched topics in sportspsychology (Smith & Wright, 2008; Wakefield & Smith, 2009). All athletesshave the potential to increase their imagery abilities through systematicsprocedure (=-=Evans et al., 2004-=-; Orlick & Partington, 1988; Rodgers et al.,s1991).sJacobson (1930) was the first to show by using electromyography thatssubjects showed muscle contractions when simply imaging a simplesmovement of ar...

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...lspreparation and imagery. For instance, research (e.g., Ryan & Simons 1981,s1983), as well as reviews of mental preparation and imagery literature (e.g.,sDriskell et al., 1994; Feltz & Landers 1983; =-=Feltz et al., 1988-=-), suggest thatscognitive rather than strength tasks benefit most from imagery (Morris et al.,s2005).sAthlete performance has been improved to a greater degree throughsimagery that emphasizes producti...

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...nce situation.sThere are also Specific types of imagery that were effective in changingsathletes’ perceptions of anxiety from harmful and negative to facilitative andschallenging (Evans et al., 2004; =-=Hale & Whitehouse, 1998-=-; Nideffer, 1981;sPage et al., 1999).sFurthermore, imagery has been shown to be effective in enhancingsself-confidence (Callow et al., 2001; Evans et al., 2004; Garza & Feltz, 1998;sHale & Whitehouse,...

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...te thesimprovement and learning of skills (Hall & Rodgers, 1989). As well, imagery issoften a central component in the mental training programs developed andsimplemented by sport psychologists (e.g., =-=Daw & Burton, 1994-=-). Given thesrecognized value and widespread use of imagery in sport, it is not surprisingsthat researchers have been interested in investigating why imagery works andshow athletes can use it effectiv...

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...ne themselves in ways that can lead tos25slearning and developing skills and can facilitate performance of those skills. Itsis normally assessed in terms of its cognitive and motivational attributess(=-=Fauzee et al., 2009-=-).sMurphy and Martin (2002) provided a descriptive outline of imagery usesin relation to their overview of Martin et al. (1999) applied model of imagerysuse in sport. They proposed that imagery use is...

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...ellsrecognized by athletes, coaches, and sport psychologists (Hall, 1995).sDespite this, there has been limited research specifically focused on the usesof mental imagery in physical education (e.g., =-=Anderson, 1997-=-; Goudas &sGiannoudis, 2008). However, a great deal of research on mental imagery hassbeen conducted in the motor learning (Hall et al.,s1992; Holmes & Collins,s2001) and sport psychology (In Morris e...

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...ce and execution. Athletes commonly use positivesperformance imagery and self- instruction as part of their routine just beforesan athletic performance in the hopes of performing as well as possibles(=-=Cumming et al., 2006-=-; Defrancesco & Burke, 1997; Neck & Manz, 1992). Insaddition, Beilock and others (2001) found that suppressive imagery (wheresthe performer was told to imagine “don’t miss”) also produced decreases in...

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...ture havesdemonstrated that Imagery is a method of mental practice efficient to thesenhancement of sports performance and motor learning (Woolfolk et al.,s1985; Paivio, 1985; Shaw & Goodfellow, 1997; =-=Gammage et al., 2000-=-; Taylors& Shaw, 2002; Coelho et al., 2007; Greenspan & Feltz, 1989; Meyers et al.,s1996; Vealey, 1994).sThus, when the movement is complex and requires more than onesfocus of attention, the imagery u...

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...e used. The results demonstrated that the participants in bothsthe imagery and the self-instruction conditions served significantly moresaccurately than those in the control condition.sThose studies (=-=Arvinen-Barrow et al., 2007-=-; Coelho et al., 2007, 2008;sJekauc &sWoll, 2005, 2006; Jekauc, 2006; Malouff et al., 2008) aimed tos63sdetermine whether the effect of an intervention using imagery resulted in ansincrease in self-co...

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...ontact, which tend to slope away from thesgoalkeeper when the ball is played to his right side, assuming a right-footeds83spenalty taker, and the arc of the kicking leg as it approaches the ball (sees=-=Franks and Hanvey, 1997-=-; Savelsbergh et al., 2002 in Stratton et al., 2004, p.s140).sAccording to Palacios-Huerta (2003), the time it takes the ball to getsfrom the penalty mark to the goal is about 0.3 s; this would imply ...

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...ation as verysimportant, only 44% made frequent use of mental preparation strategies andstechniques. In addition, athletes tend to use mental training techniques moresin competition than in practice (=-=Frey et al., 2003-=-). Overall, this researchsindicates that athletes believe in the efficacy of mental training, but most fail tosuse it systematically as part of their physical training regiment (Vealey, 2007).sImagery...

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... with beginners.sSome researchers suggest that many factors affect the mentalspractice, such as the movement synesthesia, the duration of training sections,sthe ability and experience of the athlete (=-=Barton, 1996-=-; Scales, 1995; Epstein,s1980).sBarton (1996) developed a study to determine if a method of imagerysintervention could help performance improvement in rappelling, while takingsinto consideration gende...

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...he direction of ansopponent’s shot. For example, in serve and return, the first serve is asdominant factor in the game because the serve is largely responsible forsdetermining the speed of the point (=-=Coe, 2000-=-; Jackson & Gudgeon, 2004).sThe importance of speed in tennis includes; the player to be able tosreact as fast as possible to surprise actions by an opponent, being able tosgive the ball as much relea...

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... use imagery more extensively andssystematically than less successful athletes (Vealey & Greenleaf, 2006).sStudies showed also the effect of mental imagery on the enhancementsof athleticsperformance (=-=Feltz & Landers, 1983-=-; Jones & Stuth, 1997; MartinsEvidence that Imagery WorkssEnhances Performancesand LearningsMental practice of skill overstimesPreparatory imagery forscompetitionsPart of multimodal mentalstraining pr...

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...ctice the model mentally. Thesresults support the theory that the motor system can program closed skillssmore easily when one can efficiently represent the kinesthetic image of thesskill in question (=-=Fery & Morizot, 2000-=-).sOn the other hand, Jones et al. (1997) defined such sports asskinaesthetic sports and state that these types of sports are characteristicallysplayed by athletes that use kinaesthetic imagery. The e...

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...esgoalkeeper to use the appropriate response cues provided by the kicker.s65sSecond, is the examination of the penalty shoot-out. Is there an optimalsordering of the selected group of penalty takers (=-=Franks et al., 1999-=-).sFrank and Hanvey (1997) also examined the following visual cuessprovided by the penalty taker for their predictive utility – the starting position,sthe angle of approach to the ball, the forward or...

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...nxietysSuccessful Athletes UsesIt!sSuccessful athletes usesimagery more extensivelysand more systematicallysthan less successfulsathletess28set al., 1999), learning of basketball tactical strategies (=-=Guillot et al., 2009-=-)smotor performance and skills (Morris et al., 2005; Papadelis et al., 2007; Weis& Luo, 2009). According to those literature reviews, imagery as an element ofssport psychology skill or mental training...

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...ance between the ball and the goal, and because of the highsspeed at which the ball is kicked, the goalkeeper usually cannot afford to waitsuntil he sees clearly in what direction the ball is kicked (=-=Bar-Eli et al., 2009-=-).sTherefore, the goalkeeper should react too early for two reasons. The firstsreason is that the goalkeeper will not benefit from subsequent (more reliable)svisual cues provided by the penalty taker....

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...y using electromyography thatssubjects showed muscle contractions when simply imaging a simplesmovement of arm flexion. Later on, these findings were replicated andsconfirmed by other studies (e.g., .=-=Bird, 1984-=-; Jody & Harris, 1990).sThe first study of mental practice effects on motor skills took place ins1934 (Vandall et al., 1934). Since that time, a plethora of research has beensconducted in this area (V...

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...of saving the shot. Somesplayers use a strategy in which they aim to take advantage of this by watchingsthe keeper’s movement and adjust their kicking motion to shoot into the emptysside of the goal (=-=Bowtell et al., 2009-=-).sThe nature of the penalty kick necessitates a decision by thesgoalkeeper in real-time based on the detection of visual cues. Laboratorybased studies have reported 100 ms to be the lower limit for r...

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...ardson, 1994). Since closed skills tend tosbe more affected by imagery, because they are completely under the athlete’sscontrol, the athlete can use imagery to visualize them precisely (Singer, 2000;s=-=Coelho et al., 2007-=-, 2008).s1.1 Purpose of the studysThe present study seeks to test specifically whether the precision ofstennis serves, and similarly, soccer penalty kicks can be improved throughsmental training. Tenn...

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...ekauc & Woll, 2006; Knudson, 2006; Moran &sMarshall, 2009; Pittman, 1989; Roetert & Groppel, 2001). Furthermore, thesservice stroke has also been recognised as an important part of Grand Slamstennis (=-=Donoghue & Ballantyne, 2004-=-). A tennis player must acquire it in ordersto have an effective attack. In addition, the serve is the only stroke over whichsa player has full control. The two chances allowed on the serve make itsun...

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...tions ’ reaction time ands74sconsequently their ability to return the ball. Variations of the service action cansalso cause the ball to spin which affects the trajectory of the ball after thesbounce (=-=Behamonde & Knudson, 2003-=-; Emery & Hopper, 2001; Pittman,s1989).sThe object of the serve is to put the ball in play so that it will be difficultsfor the opponent to make a strong return or, in fact, to make a return at all.sS...

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...sp. 169). Winning a tennis match is impossible without a mastery of serve andsreturn, both technically and tactically, so that, special attention has been givensto researching the service and return (=-=Bollettieri, 1995-=-; Hedelund &sRasmusen, 1997; Schönborn, 1999; Kleinoder, 2001); considered as the mostsimportant strokes in a modern game in tennis.sThe serve is both the easiest and the most difficult shot in tennis...

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... with asclear focus in order to achieve optimal results (Mayer & Hermann, 2010, p.s68).sAlthough, concentration is very important aspect for closed motor skillssin sport (Arvinen-Barrow et al., 2007; =-=Bös & Schneider, 2003-=-; Weinberg &sGould, 2007), it is important to appreciate that little guidance is provided bysthe literature in this area. Therefore, future research will be needed to studyshow precisely these questio...

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... bodysmovements for the serve with the toss of the ball. The must explore it forshimself during practice. Physical preparation is therefore essential for playersswho wish to develop a powerful serve (=-=Clark, 1991-=-; Elliot & Yue, 2003;sKnudson, 2006; Schippers & Lange, 2006).sTraditionally, serves are classified as either first or second serves. Firstsserves attain higher-speeds (flat) and second serves are slo...

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...g confidence.sMoreover, imagery will only bring benefits to the athlete if he or shesknows how, when and where to use it. Therefore, understanding the use ofsdifferent models of imagery is necessary (=-=Coelho et al., 2008-=-).sFor examples, when Smith and Holmes (2004) designed an imagerystraining program to improve golf putting, performance was enhanced more bysmental practice using audiotapes and videotapes than by men...

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...ouble faults. Furthermore, Eta2stime*groups=.29, which explained that, 29 % of the improvement of the precisionsis due to the intervention.sSuch a big explained variance (29 %) could be explained bys(=-=Eberspächer, 2001-=-; Immenroth et al., 2008; Morris et al., 2005;sMayer et al.,s2009; Weinberg & Gould, 2007). In this intervention the workbook wassconnected with the imagination of different sensory modalities. Also t...

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...the play out and uses a little creativity.sFor example, “The height that the ball should be “pushed” should besapproximately the top of the racket if a player is to hit a relatively stationarysball” (=-=Elliot, 1995-=-; DTB. Bd. 2, 1996; Schuyler, 1993).sSpeed of the serve is determined not only by how hard the ball is strucksbut also by the amount of spin that is imparted to the ball, with a high servicesspeed bei...

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...4sconsequently their ability to return the ball. Variations of the service action cansalso cause the ball to spin which affects the trajectory of the ball after thesbounce (Behamonde & Knudson, 2003; =-=Emery & Hopper, 2001-=-; Pittman,s1989).sThe object of the serve is to put the ball in play so that it will be difficultsfor the opponent to make a strong return or, in fact, to make a return at all.sServing to an opponents...

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...Garza & Feltz, 1998;sHale & Whitehouse, 1998; McKenzie & Howe, 1997; Short et al., 2002),smotivation (Martin & Hall, 1995), the ability to maintain concentration in sportstasks (Calmels et al., 2004; =-=Farrow & Kemp, 2003-=-), and visual search abilitiess(Jordet, 2005) of athletes during competition (Vealey, 2007, P.296).sIn the domain of motor skills and sport psychology, mental imagery hassbecome an important component...

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... 2001; Noel, 1980). Once a high level ofsexpertise and skill has been established, visualization may serve as a conduitsfor the transfer of skills from practice to competition (Driskell et al., 1994;s=-=Gallucci, 2008-=-; Gould & Damarjian, 1996).sIt was hypothesized that this was due to the fact that low-abilitysperformers used incorrect imagery, and in doing so reinforced errors.sFurthermore, the vast majority of h...

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...ce. Through the use of wrong technical processes,s“wrong” patterns are stored in the brain (e.g. a poor running and throwingstechnique) that can later severely limit the optimal development of speeds(=-=Grosser & Schönborn, 2002-=-, p. 56).sTechnique is a factor that can be seen in connection with movement.sThis is especially relevant in modern technique training in tennis (Schönborn,s2000). Furthermore, tennis stroke and movem...