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...in vegetation, particularly when coupled with laboratory research. For example, in one experiment, the ratio of R695eR760 or R800 was the most consistent stress indicator among several ratios tested (=-=Carter, 1994-=-; Giardino and Haley, 2006:51). Hyperspectral data can provide data in these narrow regions of the EMS. Finally, hyperspectral data, in conjunction with algorithms for unmixing the spectral constituen...

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...s are operating with 5 in development and 6 under study. One in particular, ASTER, is increasingly being utilized by archaeologists due to its high spatial resolution and broad spectral capabilities (=-=Altaweel, 2005-=-). ASTER is one of the five state-of-the-art instrument sensor systems onboard the Terra satellite launched in December 1999 as a cooperative effort between NASA and Japan’s Ministry of Economy Trade ...

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...ch as testing predictive models of site distribution. One such successful application of remote sensing in eastern US archaeology was conducted during the early 1980s in Delaware (Wells et al., 1981; =-=Custer et al., 1986-=-). Here Custer and his colleagues subdivided a large portion of central Delaware into broad land cover and hydrological classes using Landsat MSS imagery. They found that these modern land use classes...

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...ries of satellites has been widely used in archaeology as archaeologists gained experience and confidence in the use of multi-spectral data for a variety of archaeological applications (Miller, 1974; =-=McKee and Sever, 1994-=-:139e140). The National Park Service (NPS) carried out some of the earliest and most extensive applications of NASA’s satellite imagery to archaeology. Under the leadership of Thomas Lyons and James E...

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...lutions than were previously available. Paired with new techniques of image analysis, this technology may make the direct detection of archaeological sites a realistic goal (Jones and Giardino, 1997; =-=Wiseman and El-Baz, 2007-=-). As of 2009 twenty-one NASA Earth Observing satellites are operating with 5 in development and 6 under study. One in particular, ASTER, is increasingly being utilized by archaeologists due to its hi...

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...imagery has not been widely used for archaeological research. Still, Skylab images were useful in identifying linear features, such as prehistoric irrigation canals in the southwestern United States (=-=Ebert and Lyons, 1980-=-). Just one year prior to Skylab, on July 23, 1972, NASA launched the first in a series of Earth Resources Technology Satellites (ERTS 1) which in many ways revolutionized how archaeologists conduct t...

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...nfrared film, buried or obscure cultural features may absorb and radiate solar energy in amounts that differ from that of the surrounding soil matrix, thereby revealing the features on the imagery.” (=-=Gumerman and Lyons, 1971-=-:130) In the United States, NASA was beginning to appreciate the “serendipitous” benefit of the developing space technology for studying ancient cultures. In 1970 a young NASA summer intern, originall...

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...nd white as well as infrared photography from the S065 multiband experiment flown on Apollo 11, Kedar was able to identify the linear features built by prehistoric people in the Phoenix Arizona area (=-=Schaber and Gumerman, 1969-=-). Two archaeological expeditions in Europe experimented with similar technology around the same time as Kedar’s work in Arizona. The University of Minnesota expedition to Messenia Greece in 1969 used...

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...enter, 1983); Poverty Point (Gibson,1984,1987,1989; Sever andWiseman,1985); and protohistoric sites in northernMississippi (Johnson et al., 1988) and Anasazi roads in Chaco Canyon (Sever, 1983, 1990; =-=Sever and Wagner, 1991-=-). To search for prehistoric roads in Chaco Canyon, the TMS was also flown at an altitude of 4267 m resulting in 10-m spatial resolution. Processing of the TMS data over Chaco Canyon using Earth Resou...

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...; the multi-spectral scanner simultaneously measured the intensity of infrared in 10 wavelength ranges, scanning a swath 74 kmwide centered on the spacecraft’s ground track (Compton and Benson, 1983; =-=Belew and Stuhlinger, 1973-=-). Skylab imagery and photographs, together with the vast majority of NASA imagery, are available from theUnited StatesGeological Survey (USGS) EROSdata center. Skylab imagery has not been widely used...

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...ion only in the thermal infrared (9400e12200 nm) at intervals between bands varying from400 nm between 8.2 and 9.4 microns and in 800 and 1000 nm between 9.4 and 12.2 microns (Kahle and Abbott, 1986; =-=Bennett et al., 1986-=-). TIMS measured thermal radiation in degrees centigrade with accuracies better than a tenth of a degree, which translated operationally to accuracies of a half of a degree C after atmospheric correct...

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... index. For example, in Louisiana’s coastal marsh landscapes, “upland” live oaks and associated plants like hackberries are often the first and most reliable evidence of a buried archaeological site (=-=Brown, 1936-=-). These trees are readily identifiable through their spectral response curves in remotely sensed images, especially those derived from hyperspectral data. Secondly, the presence of plant stress (or v...

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...km diameter) on the ground; the multi-spectral scanner simultaneously measured the intensity of infrared in 10 wavelength ranges, scanning a swath 74 kmwide centered on the spacecraft’s ground track (=-=Compton and Benson, 1983-=-; Belew and Stuhlinger, 1973). Skylab imagery and photographs, together with the vast majority of NASA imagery, are available from theUnited StatesGeological Survey (USGS) EROSdata center. Skylab imag...

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..., conducted archaeological research of early Greek and Roman settlements in the Italian peninsula, and finally for Rutgers University in support of paleoanthropological research in Koobi Fora, Kenya (=-=Dibble, 2006-=-). SSC and EPA’s Gulf of Mexico Program collaborated with state agencies in Veracruz to further the analysis of several important Olmec sites including San Lorenzo, Laguna de los Cerros, Tres Zapotes,...

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...ites will exhibit higher species variability resulting from anthropogenic factors such as plant collecting, horticulture, waste production and disposal than the off-site communities (Traviglia, 2008; =-=Dunn, 1983-=-; Eleuterius and Otvos, 1979). Measuring variability in plant species over a given region becomes more feasible when using hyperspectral data and concomitant processing techniques. 10. Conclusion NASA...

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... particularly when coupled with laboratory research. For example, in one experiment, the ratio of R695eR760 or R800 was the most consistent stress indicator among several ratios tested (Carter, 1994; =-=Giardino and Haley, 2006-=-:51). Hyperspectral data can provide data in these narrow regions of the EMS. Finally, hyperspectral data, in conjunction with algorithms for unmixing the spectral constituents of a given pixel, will ...

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...unds, concentric ridges and “avenues”. The TIMS data, particularly Band 3 (9.0e9.4 microns), when processed with high-pass filters, dramatically highlighted the aisles to the northwest and southwest (=-=Gibson, 1984-=-; Rickman and Kalcic, 1982). In addition TIMS data demonstrated that soil conditions at Poverty Point that are characterized by phosphate concentration possibly indicative of human habitation, have su...

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...f North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Jay Johnson, University of Mississippi, Fred Limp, University of Arkansas, James Wiseman, Boston University and Tom Sever, NASA (Limp, 1989; Wiseman, 1984; Madry, 1983; =-=Johnson, 2006-=-). M.J. Giardino / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 2003e20092004 3. NSTL conference In 1983, Dr. Thomas Sever of the NASA Stennis Space Center (then known as the National Space Testing Lab...

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... undertaken in archaeology throughout the world, each forging new methods, identifying challenges and providing NASA with increased rationale for formalizing its role in archaeology (see for example, =-=Johnson et al., 1988-=-; Parcak, 2009). Prominent among the pioneers of satellite remote sensing and archaeology in the United States are Scott Madry from University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Jay Johnson, University o...

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... spatial and spectral resolutions than were previously available. Paired with new techniques of image analysis, this technology may make the direct detection of archaeological sites a realistic goal (=-=Jones and Giardino, 1997-=-; Wiseman and El-Baz, 2007). As of 2009 twenty-one NASA Earth Observing satellites are operating with 5 in development and 6 under study. One in particular, ASTER, is increasingly being utilized by ar...

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...er which measures radiation only in the thermal infrared (9400e12200 nm) at intervals between bands varying from400 nm between 8.2 and 9.4 microns and in 800 and 1000 nm between 9.4 and 12.2 microns (=-=Kahle and Abbott, 1986-=-; Bennett et al., 1986). TIMS measured thermal radiation in degrees centigrade with accuracies better than a tenth of a degree, which translated operationally to accuracies of a half of a degree C aft...

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...s. The elevation models developed by SSC included the location of the riverine bluffs along the route and so served to refine the predicted locations for several important sites such as Fort Clatsop (=-=Karsmizki et al., 2003-=-a), the location of the Iron Boat burial site (Karsmizki et al., 2003b), Rock Fort Camp Site, and the Dalles, in Oregon (Karsmizki et al., 2004). The co-registrationofmoderndigital imageswith Clark’s ...

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...ations for several important sites such as Fort Clatsop (Karsmizki et al., 2003a), the location of the Iron Boat burial site (Karsmizki et al., 2003b), Rock Fort Camp Site, and the Dalles, in Oregon (=-=Karsmizki et al., 2004-=-). The co-registrationofmoderndigital imageswith Clark’s historic maps completed during the Lewis and Clark project provided a very valuable product for focusing the ground search for specific sites. ...

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..., 1978; Lyons and Mathien, 1980). The amount of work on applying remote sensing to archaeology was already significant by the late 1970s so that a preliminary bibliography was feasible and necessary (=-=Kruchman, 1976-=-). In the 1980s, archaeology saw a notable increase in the use of NASA remote sensing imagery and some applications went beyond site identification toward the exploration of increasingly more complex ...

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...States are Scott Madry from University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Jay Johnson, University of Mississippi, Fred Limp, University of Arkansas, James Wiseman, Boston University and Tom Sever, NASA (=-=Limp, 1989-=-; Wiseman, 1984; Madry, 1983; Johnson, 2006). M.J. Giardino / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 2003e20092004 3. NSTL conference In 1983, Dr. Thomas Sever of the NASA Stennis Space Center (t...

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...nd prehistoric sites and roadways in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico (Lyons and Hitchcock, 1977). In 1977, Lyons and Avery published an influential guide to using remote sensing for archaeological research (=-=Lyons and Avery, 1977-=-), followed by two additional and important publications on remote sensing and cultural resources (Lyons and Ebert, 1978; Lyons and Mathien, 1980). The amount of work on applying remote sensing to arc...

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...ished an influential guide to using remote sensing for archaeological research (Lyons and Avery, 1977), followed by two additional and important publications on remote sensing and cultural resources (=-=Lyons and Ebert, 1978-=-; Lyons and Mathien, 1980). The amount of work on applying remote sensing to archaeology was already significant by the late 1970s so that a preliminary bibliography was feasible and necessary (Kruchm...

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... University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Jay Johnson, University of Mississippi, Fred Limp, University of Arkansas, James Wiseman, Boston University and Tom Sever, NASA (Limp, 1989; Wiseman, 1984; =-=Madry, 1983-=-; Johnson, 2006). M.J. Giardino / Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011) 2003e20092004 3. NSTL conference In 1983, Dr. Thomas Sever of the NASA Stennis Space Center (then known as the National Sp...

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...the Landsat series of satellites has been widely used in archaeology as archaeologists gained experience and confidence in the use of multi-spectral data for a variety of archaeological applications (=-=Miller, 1974-=-; McKee and Sever, 1994:139e140). The National Park Service (NPS) carried out some of the earliest and most extensive applications of NASA’s satellite imagery to archaeology. Under the leadership of T...

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...ic ridges and “avenues”. The TIMS data, particularly Band 3 (9.0e9.4 microns), when processed with high-pass filters, dramatically highlighted the aisles to the northwest and southwest (Gibson, 1984; =-=Rickman and Kalcic, 1982-=-). In addition TIMS data demonstrated that soil conditions at Poverty Point that are characterized by phosphate concentration possibly indicative of human habitation, have sufficiently strong signatur...

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...struments at that time. Scalera concluded her internal report with a highly optimistic forecast for the future of NASA “Space Age” technology to archaeology, a declaration that would prove prophetic (=-=Scalera, 1970-=-). Three years after Scalera’s report, NASA initiated the manned Skylab missions (named Skylab 2, 3 and 4 respectively) which added over 35,000 images of the Earth to the growing archives of Earth pho...

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...SA document whose objective was to assess the feasibility of “remote sensing techniques for delineating and inventorying archaeological sites and features in order to expedite survey and excavation” (=-=Sever, 1983-=-). Sever proposed imaging Chaco Canyon using two airborne multi-spectral scanners: the Thematic Mapper Simulator (TMS) and the Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner (TIMS) which are discussed in Sect...

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...d in Section 1.4.1. NASA responded positively to Sever’s proposal and in March of 1984, Sever joined James Wiseman from Boston University in sponsoring a conference on remote sensing and archaeology (=-=Sever and Wiseman, 1985-=-). The objective of the conference was “to bring together a group of archaeologists representing a broad spectrum of archaeological concerns to learn more about the recent advances in NASA’s remote se...

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...ted on the various Landsat platforms (MSS or Multispectral Scanner; the TM or Thematic Mapper; the ETM or Enhanced Thematic Mapper and the ETMþ flown on Landsat 7) are well known and well documented (=-=Short, 1982-=-). The MSS systems were the first global monitoring systems capable of producing multi-spectral data in a digital format. Since the early 1970s, the Landsat series of satellites has been widely used i...

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... archaeological sites will exhibit higher species variability resulting from anthropogenic factors such as plant collecting, horticulture, waste production and disposal than the off-site communities (=-=Traviglia, 2008-=-; Dunn, 1983; Eleuterius and Otvos, 1979). Measuring variability in plant species over a given region becomes more feasible when using hyperspectral data and concomitant processing techniques. 10. Con...

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...e complex issues, such as testing predictive models of site distribution. One such successful application of remote sensing in eastern US archaeology was conducted during the early 1980s in Delaware (=-=Wells et al., 1981-=-; Custer et al., 1986). Here Custer and his colleagues subdivided a large portion of central Delaware into broad land cover and hydrological classes using Landsat MSS imagery. They found that these mo...