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... in schizophrenia span from millisecond ... Brain and Cognition Intellectual and cognitive functioning was assessed using the two-subtest form of the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI; =-=Wechsler, 1999-=-) and the Digit Span (forward and backward), Digit Symbol, Picture Completion, and Similarities subtests from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – III (WAIS-III; Wechsler, 1997). The WASI two-subte...

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...written informed consent was obtained from all participants. Current symptom levels in the patient group were assessed by trained diagnosticians using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS; =-=Kay, Fiszbein, & Opler, 1987-=-). The PANSS contains 30 items, or symptoms, that are scored between 1 (absent) and 7 (extreme). Symptom ratings were categorized into a five-subscale structure (i.e., positive, negative, cognitive, h...

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...Carroll et al., 2008). Each of the schizophrenia participants was evaluated using the Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV) for Axis I disorders (SCID-I; =-=First, Spitzer, Gibbon, & Williams, 2002-=-a), supplemented by chart information. All control participants were interviewed using the SCID-NP (First, Spitzer, Gibbon, &Williams, 2002b) to exclude individualswith Axis I disorders, antisocial pe...

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... (Gibbon, 1981). Scalar Timing Theory is a mathematical description of interval timing that attributes variability in temporally-mediated behavior to different stages of information processing (e.g., =-=Gibbon, 1977-=-; Gibbon, 1991; Gibbon & Church, 1984). As illustrated in Fig. 1, the conversion of real time into subjective time occurs during the clock stage, where a Poisson-variable pacemaker is assumed to emit ...

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...instance, schizophrenia has been associated with impaired neural integration across the prefrontal, thalamic, and cerebellar regions (Andreasen, 1999), which are also involved in temporal estimation (=-=Ivry & Keele, 1989-=-; Jueptner et al., 1995; Nichelli, Always, & Grafman, 1996) and temporally-mediated motor tasks such as paced finger tapping (Ivry, 1993; Ivry & Keele, 1989; Ivry, Keele, & Diener, 1988) and eye-blink...

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...oral processing Temporal coordination Variability ciat examined timing behavior in schizophrenia have employed temporal durations in the range of several ‘‘Disconnection” models (e.g., Friston, 1998; =-=McGlashan & Hoffman, 2000-=-) of schizophrenia posit that deficits in neural coordination arise from reduced synaptic connectivity during development. Developmentally reduced synaptic connectiveness can result in spontaneous and...

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... Meck, 1997; Matell & Meck, 2000). Important to the integrity of the cortico-striatal timing network is the neurotransmitter dopamine (Buhusi & Meck, 2002; Maricq, Roberts, & Church, 1981; Meck 1983; =-=Meck 1996-=-; Santi, Weise, & Kuiper, 1995; Stanford & Santi, 1998; Tracy et al., 1998), which has also been linked to the manifestation of the schizophrenia (Carlsson et al., 2001). Despite behavioral and neurop...

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...tamate, and serotonin – that are directly linked to neural timing processes are also impaired in schizophrenia (Andreasen, 1999; Andreasen et al., 1998; Buhusi & Meck, 2007; Cheng, Ali, & Meck, 2007; =-=Rao, Mayer, & Harrington, 2001-=-; Rao et al., 1997; Volz et al., 2001). Despite the growing interest and1. Introduction0278-2626/$ - see front matter 2009 Published by doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.02.001 Please cite this article in pr...

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...(Densen, 1977; Johnson & Petzel, 1971; Tysk, 1983a, 1983b, 1990; Volz et al., 2001; Wahl & Sieg, 1980), requiring higher cognitive processes beyond initial sensory registration for temporal encoding (=-=Fraisse, 1984-=-; Michon, 1985; Rammsayer & Lima, 1991). Thus, the aim of the present study was to delineate deficits of temporal perception from more * Corresponding author. Address: Department of Psychological and ...

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...l., 1995; Nichelli, Always, & Grafman, 1996) and temporally-mediated motor tasks such as paced finger tapping (Ivry, 1993; Ivry & Keele, 1989; Ivry, Keele, & Diener, 1988) and eye-blink conditioning (=-=Perret, Ruiz, & Mauk, 1993-=-; Steinmetz, 2000; Steinmetz, Lavond, Ivkovich, Logan, & Thompson, 1992). Schizophrenia has been further associated with disturbed neural communication within cortical-striatal networks (Volz et al., ...

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...in temporal estimation (Ivry & Keele, 1989; Jueptner et al., 1995; Nichelli, Always, & Grafman, 1996) and temporally-mediated motor tasks such as paced finger tapping (Ivry, 1993; Ivry & Keele, 1989; =-=Ivry, Keele, & Diener, 1988-=-) and eye-blink conditioning (Perret, Ruiz, & Mauk, 1993; Steinmetz, 2000; Steinmetz, Lavond, Ivkovich, Logan, & Thompson, 1992). Schizophrenia has been further associated with disturbed neural commun...

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...he expression of clinical symptoms associated with both positive (e.g., hallucinations, delusions) and negative (e.g., psychomotor poverty, poverty of speech) subtype classifications of the disorder (=-=Andreasen, 1999-=-; Hyde, Ziegler, & Weinberger, 1993; McGlashan & Hoffman, 2000). review). Accordingly, other classic symptoms of schizophrenia such as thought disorder and disorganized and contextually inappropriate ...

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...n (Hinton & Meck, 1997; Matell & Meck, 2000). Important to the integrity of the cortico-striatal timing network is the neurotransmitter dopamine (Buhusi & Meck, 2002; Maricq, Roberts, & Church, 1981; =-=Meck 1983-=-; Meck 1996; Santi, Weise, & Kuiper, 1995; Stanford & Santi, 1998; Tracy et al., 1998), which has also been linked to the manifestation of the schizophrenia (Carlsson et al., 2001). Despite behavioral...

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... directly linked to neural timing processes are also impaired in schizophrenia (Andreasen, 1999; Andreasen et al., 1998; Buhusi & Meck, 2007; Cheng, Ali, & Meck, 2007; Rao, Mayer, & Harrington, 2001; =-=Rao et al., 1997-=-; Volz et al., 2001). Despite the growing interest and1. Introduction0278-2626/$ - see front matter 2009 Published by doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.02.001 Please cite this article in press as: Carroll, (...

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...ng Theory is a mathematical description of interval timing that attributes variability in temporally-mediated behavior to different stages of information processing (e.g., Gibbon, 1977; Gibbon, 1991; =-=Gibbon & Church, 1984-=-). As illustrated in Fig. 1, the conversion of real time into subjective time occurs during the clock stage, where a Poisson-variable pacemaker is assumed to emit pulses that get stored in the accumul...

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...nia Timing Temporal processing Temporal coordination Variability ciat examined timing behavior in schizophrenia have employed temporal durations in the range of several ‘‘Disconnection” models (e.g., =-=Friston, 1998-=-; McGlashan & Hoffman, 2000) of schizophrenia posit that deficits in neural coordination arise from reduced synaptic connectivity during development. Developmentally reduced synaptic connectiveness ca...

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...esentation of temporal information (Hinton & Meck, 1997; Matell & Meck, 2000). Important to the integrity of the cortico-striatal timing network is the neurotransmitter dopamine (Buhusi & Meck, 2002; =-=Maricq, Roberts, & Church, 1981-=-; Meck 1983; Meck 1996; Santi, Weise, & Kuiper, 1995; Stanford & Santi, 1998; Tracy et al., 1998), which has also been linked to the manifestation of the schizophrenia (Carlsson et al., 2001). Despite...

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...urbance in the temporal coordination of information processing in the brain, leading to dysfunctions in the timing of perceptual, cognitive, and motor processes (Bressler, 2003; Paulus & Braff, 2003; =-=Phillips & Silverstein, 2003-=-; Tononi & Edelman, 2000). These impairments of neural timing have also been associated with ‘‘disturbances of consciousness,” and may give rise to the expression of clinical symptoms associated with ...

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...inally developed to assess temporal memory under the assumption that the comparison of intermediate durations to the short and long anchors would maximize reliance on memory for the anchor durations (=-=Allan & Gibbon, 1991-=-). Because the major source of imprecision in temporal bisection has been attributed to mnemonic variance, it is assumed that perceived time for any given sample duration is ‘‘known exSWITCH CLOCKsMEM...

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...nation of information processing in the brain, leading to dysfunctions in the timing of perceptual, cognitive, and motor processes (Bressler, 2003; Paulus & Braff, 2003; Phillips & Silverstein, 2003; =-=Tononi & Edelman, 2000-=-). These impairments of neural timing have also been associated with ‘‘disturbances of consciousness,” and may give rise to the expression of clinical symptoms associated with both positive (e.g., hal...

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...indicated that accurate processing of temporal intervals in the range of several seconds requires increased attentional and mnemonic demands (Fortin, 1999; Fortin, Rousseau, Bourque, & Kirouac, 1993; =-=Zakay & Block, 1996-=-), making it difficult to delineate deficits of temporal perception from generalized impairments of attention (Kimble et al., 2000; Nestor & O’Donnell, 1998) and memory (Chen & McKenna, 1996) commonly...

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...el, 1971; Tysk, 1983a, 1983b, 1990; Volz et al., 2001; Wahl & Sieg, 1980), requiring higher cognitive processes beyond initial sensory registration for temporal encoding (Fraisse, 1984; Michon, 1985; =-=Rammsayer & Lima, 1991-=-). Thus, the aim of the present study was to delineate deficits of temporal perception from more * Corresponding author. Address: Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, 11...

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...eported with their corresponding partial eta2 [g2p] effect sizes, where small effect sizes are less than .06, moderate effect sizes range from .06 to .14, and large effect sizes are greater than .14 (=-=Cohen, 1973-=-). 3. Results 3.1. Practice accuracy All participants were able to correctly differentiate between the anchor durations at or above 75% accuracy following the practice phase of the millisecond and sev...

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... with impaired neural integration across the prefrontal, thalamic, and cerebellar regions (Andreasen, 1999), which are also involved in temporal estimation (Ivry & Keele, 1989; Jueptner et al., 1995; =-=Nichelli, Always, & Grafman, 1996-=-) and temporally-mediated motor tasks such as paced finger tapping (Ivry, 1993; Ivry & Keele, 1989; Ivry, Keele, & Diener, 1988) and eye-blink conditioning (Perret, Ruiz, & Mauk, 1993; Steinmetz, 2000...

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....02.001participants. Finally, to complement the behavioral analysis of the bisection data, a quantitative assessment of the performance data was achieved using a formal model of Scalar Timing Theory (=-=Gibbon, 1981-=-). Scalar Timing Theory is a mathematical description of interval timing that attributes variability in temporally-mediated behavior to different stages of information processing (e.g., Gibbon, 1977; ...

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... 1999), which are also involved in temporal estimation (Ivry & Keele, 1989; Jueptner et al., 1995; Nichelli, Always, & Grafman, 1996) and temporally-mediated motor tasks such as paced finger tapping (=-=Ivry, 1993-=-; Ivry & Keele, 1989; Ivry, Keele, & Diener, 1988) and eye-blink conditioning (Perret, Ruiz, & Mauk, 1993; Steinmetz, 2000; Steinmetz, Lavond, Ivkovich, Logan, & Thompson, 1992). Schizophrenia has bee...

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...gher sensitivity) indicating steeper slopes. Although not identical to the empirically based Weber ratio, c can be viewed as a comparable measure of proportionality in time estimations (Gibbon, 1981; =-=Penney, Allen, Meck, & Gibbon, 1998-=-). In addition to the sensitivity parameter, the SKE model contains a bias parameter, b, which serves as the threshold value between ‘‘short” (RS) and ‘‘long” (RL) response alternatives and represents...

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... classification than the conventional Positive, Negative, and General subscale distribution (Bell, Lysaker, Beam-Goulet, Milstein, & Lindenmayer, 1994a; Bell, Lysaker, Milstein, & Beam-Goulet, 1994b; =-=Kay & Sevy, 1990-=-). The five-subscale composite scores were derived by summing the item scores that comprised the given subscale as follows: positive subscale: unusual thought content, delusions, grandiosity, lack of ...

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...cognitive, hostility, and emotional discomfort) that has been suggested to provide a more sensitive subtype classification than the conventional Positive, Negative, and General subscale distribution (=-=Bell, Lysaker, Beam-Goulet, Milstein, & Lindenmayer, 1994-=-a; Bell, Lysaker, Milstein, & Beam-Goulet, 1994b; Kay & Sevy, 1990). The five-subscale composite scores were derived by summing the item scores that comprised the given subscale as follows: positive s...

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... be associated with a fundamental disturbance in the temporal coordination of information processing in the brain, leading to dysfunctions in the timing of perceptual, cognitive, and motor processes (=-=Bressler, 2003-=-; Paulus & Braff, 2003; Phillips & Silverstein, 2003; Tononi & Edelman, 2000). These impairments of neural timing have also been associated with ‘‘disturbances of consciousness,” and may give rise to ...

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...ing and explicit representation of temporal information (Hinton & Meck, 1997; Matell & Meck, 2000). Important to the integrity of the cortico-striatal timing network is the neurotransmitter dopamine (=-=Buhusi & Meck, 2002-=-; Maricq, Roberts, & Church, 1981; Meck 1983; Meck 1996; Santi, Weise, & Kuiper, 1995; Stanford & Santi, 1998; Tracy et al., 1998), which has also been linked to the manifestation of the schizophrenia...

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... For instance, studies of human timing have indicated that accurate processing of temporal intervals in the range of several seconds requires increased attentional and mnemonic demands (Fortin, 1999; =-=Fortin, Rousseau, Bourque, & Kirouac, 1993-=-; Zakay & Block, 1996), making it difficult to delineate deficits of temporal perception from generalized impairments of attention (Kimble et al., 2000; Nestor & O’Donnell, 1998) and memory (Chen & Mc...

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...clinical symptoms associated with both positive (e.g., hallucinations, delusions) and negative (e.g., psychomotor poverty, poverty of speech) subtype classifications of the disorder (Andreasen, 1999; =-=Hyde, Ziegler, & Weinberger, 1993-=-; McGlashan & Hoffman, 2000). review). Accordingly, other classic symptoms of schizophrenia such as thought disorder and disorganized and contextually inappropriate behavior may also be manifestations...

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...& Grafman, 1996) and temporally-mediated motor tasks such as paced finger tapping (Ivry, 1993; Ivry & Keele, 1989; Ivry, Keele, & Diener, 1988) and eye-blink conditioning (Perret, Ruiz, & Mauk, 1993; =-=Steinmetz, 2000-=-; Steinmetz, Lavond, Ivkovich, Logan, & Thompson, 1992). Schizophrenia has been further associated with disturbed neural communication within cortical-striatal networks (Volz et al., 2001), which are ...

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...jority of studies that have examined timing behavior in schizophrenia have employed temporal durations in the range of several seconds (Densen, 1977; Johnson & Petzel, 1971; Tysk, 1983a, 1983b, 1990; =-=Volz et al., 2001-=-; Wahl & Sieg, 1980), requiring higher cognitive processes beyond initial sensory registration for temporal encoding (Fraisse, 1984; Michon, 1985; Rammsayer & Lima, 1991). Thus, the aim of the present...

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...ms – such as dopamine, glutamate, and serotonin – that are directly linked to neural timing processes are also impaired in schizophrenia (Andreasen, 1999; Andreasen et al., 1998; Buhusi & Meck, 2007; =-=Cheng, Ali, & Meck, 2007-=-; Rao, Mayer, & Harrington, 2001; Rao et al., 1997; Volz et al., 2001). Despite the growing interest and1. Introduction0278-2626/$ - see front matter 2009 Published by doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.02.00...

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...order. In addition, the majority of studies that have examined timing behavior in schizophrenia have employed temporal durations in the range of several seconds (Densen, 1977; Johnson & Petzel, 1971; =-=Tysk, 1983-=-a, 1983b, 1990; Volz et al., 2001; Wahl & Sieg, 1980), requiring higher cognitive processes beyond initial sensory registration for temporal encoding (Fraisse, 1984; Michon, 1985; Rammsayer & Lima, 19...

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...n further associated with disturbed neural communication within cortical-striatal networks (Volz et al., 2001), which are integral to the encoding and explicit representation of temporal information (=-=Hinton & Meck, 1997-=-; Matell & Meck, 2000). Important to the integrity of the cortico-striatal timing network is the neurotransmitter dopamine (Buhusi & Meck, 2002; Maricq, Roberts, & Church, 1981; Meck 1983; Meck 1996; ...

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... lengthened relative to objective time, which has been interpreted to reflect an increase in speed of a hypothetical ‘‘internal clock” (Densen, 1977; Johnson & Petzel, 1971; Lhamon & Goldstone, 1956; =-=Tracy et al., 1998-=-; Tysk, 1983a; Tysk, 1983b; Tysk, 1990; Wahl & Sieg, 1980). Of further interest are the parallels between the neural circuitry proposed to underlie internal timing functions and those which have been ...

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...and temporally-mediated motor tasks such as paced finger tapping (Ivry, 1993; Ivry & Keele, 1989; Ivry, Keele, & Diener, 1988) and eye-blink conditioning (Perret, Ruiz, & Mauk, 1993; Steinmetz, 2000; =-=Steinmetz, Lavond, Ivkovich, Logan, & Thompson, 1992-=-). Schizophrenia has been further associated with disturbed neural communication within cortical-striatal networks (Volz et al., 2001), which are integral to the encoding and explicit representation o...

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...ng overt timing performance in the disorder. In addition, the majority of studies that have examined timing behavior in schizophrenia have employed temporal durations in the range of several seconds (=-=Densen, 1977-=-; Johnson & Petzel, 1971; Tysk, 1983a, 1983b, 1990; Volz et al., 2001; Wahl & Sieg, 1980), requiring higher cognitive processes beyond initial sensory registration for temporal encoding (Fraisse, 1984...

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...& Lima, 1991). For instance, studies of human timing have indicated that accurate processing of temporal intervals in the range of several seconds requires increased attentional and mnemonic demands (=-=Fortin, 1999-=-; Fortin, Rousseau, Bourque, & Kirouac, 1993; Zakay & Block, 1996), making it difficult to delineate deficits of temporal perception from generalized impairments of attention (Kimble et al., 2000; Nes...

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...; Matell & Meck, 2000). Important to the integrity of the cortico-striatal timing network is the neurotransmitter dopamine (Buhusi & Meck, 2002; Maricq, Roberts, & Church, 1981; Meck 1983; Meck 1996; =-=Santi, Weise, & Kuiper, 1995-=-; Stanford & Santi, 1998; Tracy et al., 1998), which has also been linked to the manifestation of the schizophrenia (Carlsson et al., 2001). Despite behavioral and neuropathological evidence for timin...

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...ant to the integrity of the cortico-striatal timing network is the neurotransmitter dopamine (Buhusi & Meck, 2002; Maricq, Roberts, & Church, 1981; Meck 1983; Meck 1996; Santi, Weise, & Kuiper, 1995; =-=Stanford & Santi, 1998-=-; Tracy et al., 1998), which has also been linked to the manifestation of the schizophrenia (Carlsson et al., 2001). Despite behavioral and neuropathological evidence for timing deficits in schizophre...

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...order. In addition, the majority of studies that have examined timing behavior in schizophrenia have employed temporal durations in the range of several seconds (Densen, 1977; Johnson & Petzel, 1971; =-=Tysk, 1983-=-a, 1983b, 1990; Volz et al., 2001; Wahl & Sieg, 1980), requiring higher cognitive processes beyond initial sensory registration for temporal encoding (Fraisse, 1984; Michon, 1985; Rammsayer & Lima, 19...

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...hat have examined timing behavior in schizophrenia have employed temporal durations in the range of several seconds (Densen, 1977; Johnson & Petzel, 1971; Tysk, 1983a, 1983b, 1990; Volz et al., 2001; =-=Wahl & Sieg, 1980-=-), requiring higher cognitive processes beyond initial sensory registration for temporal encoding (Fraisse, 1984; Michon, 1985; Rammsayer & Lima, 1991). Thus, the aim of the present study was to delin...

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...e, the SKE model contains two parameters that correspond to memory variance (c) and response bias (b). Given the increased temporal variability observed in schizophrenia on a variety of timing tasks (=-=Brown et al., 2005-=-; Carroll et al., 2008; Elvevåg et al., 2003; Goldstone, 1975; Lhamon & Goldstone, 1973; Tysk,1983a, 1983b), it is predicted that c values will be higher (i.e., less temporal precision) in the patient...

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...mance. The hypotheses for the present study were as follows: consistent with previous findings, individuals with schizophrenia were predicted to show greater timing variability (Carroll et al., 2008; =-=Elvevåg et al., 2003-=-) and a longer duration bisection point (Elvevåg et al., 2003; i.e., the duration at which short and long classifications are made with equal probability) during the millisecond bisection task compare...

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...ry variance (c) and response bias (b). Given the increased temporal variability observed in schizophrenia on a variety of timing tasks (Brown et al., 2005; Carroll et al., 2008; Elvevåg et al., 2003; =-=Goldstone, 1975-=-; Lhamon & Goldstone, 1973; Tysk,1983a, 1983b), it is predicted that c values will be higher (i.e., less temporal precision) in the patient relative to the nonpsychiatric group in both millisecond and...

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...has been interpreted to reflect an increase in speed of a hypothetical ‘‘internal clock” (Densen, 1977; Johnson & Petzel, 1971; Lhamon & Goldstone, 1956; Tracy et al., 1998; Tysk, 1983a; Tysk, 1983b; =-=Tysk, 1990-=-; Wahl & Sieg, 1980). Of further interest are the parallels between the neural circuitry proposed to underlie internal timing functions and those which have been implicated in the pathophysiology of s...

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...n suggested to provide a more sensitive subtype classification than the conventional Positive, Negative, and General subscale distribution (Bell, Lysaker, Beam-Goulet, Milstein, & Lindenmayer, 1994a; =-=Bell, Lysaker, Milstein, & Beam-Goulet, 1994-=-b; Kay & Sevy, 1990). The five-subscale composite scores were derived by summing the item scores that comprised the given subscale as follows: positive subscale: unusual thought content, delusions, gr...

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...g performance in the disorder. In addition, the majority of studies that have examined timing behavior in schizophrenia have employed temporal durations in the range of several seconds (Densen, 1977; =-=Johnson & Petzel, 1971-=-; Tysk, 1983a, 1983b, 1990; Volz et al., 2001; Wahl & Sieg, 1980), requiring higher cognitive processes beyond initial sensory registration for temporal encoding (Fraisse, 1984; Michon, 1985; Rammsaye...

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...ound to experience time as lengthened relative to objective time, which has been interpreted to reflect an increase in speed of a hypothetical ‘‘internal clock” (Densen, 1977; Johnson & Petzel, 1971; =-=Lhamon & Goldstone, 1956-=-; Tracy et al., 1998; Tysk, 1983a; Tysk, 1983b; Tysk, 1990; Wahl & Sieg, 1980). Of further interest are the parallels between the neural circuitry proposed to underlie internal timing functions and th...

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...uac, 1993; Zakay & Block, 1996), making it difficult to delineate deficits of temporal perception from generalized impairments of attention (Kimble et al., 2000; Nestor & O’Donnell, 1998) and memory (=-=Chen & McKenna, 1996-=-) commonly associated with schizophrenia. In the first study of temporal bisection in schizophrenia, Elvevåg and colleagues (2003) addressed this difficulty by employing brief stimuli in the range of ...

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...Johnson & Petzel, 1971; Tysk, 1983a, 1983b, 1990; Volz et al., 2001; Wahl & Sieg, 1980), requiring higher cognitive processes beyond initial sensory registration for temporal encoding (Fraisse, 1984; =-=Michon, 1985-=-; Rammsayer & Lima, 1991). Thus, the aim of the present study was to delineate deficits of temporal perception from more * Corresponding author. Address: Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences...

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...ith a fundamental disturbance in the temporal coordination of information processing in the brain, leading to dysfunctions in the timing of perceptual, cognitive, and motor processes (Bressler, 2003; =-=Paulus & Braff, 2003-=-; Phillips & Silverstein, 2003; Tononi & Edelman, 2000). These impairments of neural timing have also been associated with ‘‘disturbances of consciousness,” and may give rise to the expression of clin...

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... non-psychiatric group. However, b values did not indicate a general bias towards short responses in schizophrenia, which is contrary to that observed in the offspring of patients with schizophrenia (=-=Penney et al., 2005-=-). These above results are discussed in detail below. Temporal bisection is unique to other tasks of time estimation with respect to its predictions and the inferences that can be drawn from temporal ...

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...nd response bias (b). Given the increased temporal variability observed in schizophrenia on a variety of timing tasks (Brown et al., 2005; Carroll et al., 2008; Elvevåg et al., 2003; Goldstone, 1975; =-=Lhamon & Goldstone, 1973-=-; Tysk,1983a, 1983b), it is predicted that c values will be higher (i.e., less temporal precision) in the patient relative to the nonpsychiatric group in both millisecond and second duration condition...

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...with disturbed neural communication within cortical-striatal networks (Volz et al., 2001), which are integral to the encoding and explicit representation of temporal information (Hinton & Meck, 1997; =-=Matell & Meck, 2000-=-). Important to the integrity of the cortico-striatal timing network is the neurotransmitter dopamine (Buhusi & Meck, 2002; Maricq, Roberts, & Church, 1981; Meck 1983; Meck 1996; Santi, Weise, & Kuipe...

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... Intelligence (WASI; Wechsler, 1999) and the Digit Span (forward and backward), Digit Symbol, Picture Completion, and Similarities subtests from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – III (WAIS-III; =-=Wechsler, 1997-=-). The WASI two-subtest format gives an estimate of general intellectual ability, and includes the Vocabulary subtest, which is used to assess crystallized intelligence, and the Matrix Reasoning subte...