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...homozygotes. In the case of sexual antagonism, selection in males and females occurs in parallel with changes in zygotic allele frequencies determined by the harmonic means of sex-specific fitnesses (=-=Levene 1953-=-). For the same arithmetic mean, the harmonic mean decreases with larger differences between the sex-specific fitnesses. Therefore, conditions for stable polymorphism become less restrictive for stron...

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...ocess resembles mutual hitchhiking in which alleles at the two loci are carried along in each other’s draft. Local adaptation can create habitat-specialist islands within a habitat-generalist genome (=-=Nosil et al. 2009-=-) and select for chromosomal inversions that bind together coadapted clusters of alleles (Kirkpatrick and Barton 2006). Sexspecific selection can be seen as a special case of divergent selection in di...

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...eficial—favors the suppression of recombination between the haplotypes which, in turn, favors further accumulation of sexually antagonistic differences between the nascent sex chromosomes (Rice 1984; =-=Charlesworth 1991-=-). Sex-specific meiotic drive sows discord within the genome with respect to sex determination because driving haplotypes will accumulate alleles that promote development as the sex in which drive occ...

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.... Local adaptation can create habitat-specialist islands within a habitat-generalist genome (Nosil et al. 2009) and select for chromosomal inversions that bind together coadapted clusters of alleles (=-=Kirkpatrick and Barton 2006-=-). Sexspecific selection can be seen as a special case of divergent selection in different habitats. By analogy to models of ecological divergence, sexual antagonism can create complementary haplotype...

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...that favors the lesser sum, but its expression at the optimal level in the other niche, is the evolutionarily stable outcome of conflict between matrigenes and patrigenes over level of transcription (=-=Haig and Westoby 1989-=-; Úbeda and Haig 2003). All-ornone imprinting is evolutionarily stable because the amount of mRNA is optimal in the niche in which an allele is expressed but the allele cannot reduce its expression b...

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...ferent optimal levels of growth. Parental conflict between the suborganisms is expressed by IGF-II pushing growth toward the patrigenic optimum and IGF2R pushing growth toward the matrigenic optimum (=-=Haig and Graham 1991-=-). In a model of Wilkins and Haig (2001), parentally antagonistic selection favored progressively lower matrigenic expression of Igf2 and progressively higher patrigenic expression, with the opposite ...

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...p://cshperspectives.cshlp.org/Downloaded fromsual’s survival and reproduction. This symmetry is broken when organisms interact with kin to whom they are unequally related via their mother and father (=-=Haig 1997-=-; Úbeda and Gardner 2010). Adaptive responses to such asymmetries of relatedness can favor gene expression that is conditional on parental origin. “Imprinted” expression can cause matrigenes and patr...

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...ilized by a sperm. Therefore, males considered collectively have the same reproductive value as females because half the genes of the next generation will be derived from males and half from females (=-=Kokko et al. 2006-=-). This fundamental symmetry is independent of sex ratio and mating system and applies also to hermaphrodites in male and female roles. Despite their equal stakes in posterity, males and females have ...

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...id parents (unfortunately, we have found no better adjective). Genes of mothers and matrigenes of offspring have distinct evolutionary “interests,” as do genes of fathers and patrigenes of offspring (=-=Haig 1992-=-; Burt and Trivers 1998; Wilkins and Haig 2002; Queller 2003). Parental conflict between matrigenes and patrigenes is not the same as sexual conflict between mothers and fathers. Sexual conflict and s...

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...(unfortunately, we have found no better adjective). Genes of mothers and matrigenes of offspring have distinct evolutionary “interests,” as do genes of fathers and patrigenes of offspring (Haig 1992; =-=Burt and Trivers 1998-=-; Wilkins and Haig 2002; Queller 2003). Parental conflict between matrigenes and patrigenes is not the same as sexual conflict between mothers and fathers. Sexual conflict and sexual antagonism are di...

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...onceptual confusion. Consider two illustrative hypotheses: (1) Seminal proteins benefit a male’s sperm in competition with sperm of other males but reduce the longevity of females with whom he mates (=-=Chapman et al. 1995-=-). Sexual conflict is present because a trait that increases male fitness reduces the fitness of females, but sexual antagonism is absent because genes that encode male-specific proteins are never exp...

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...f relatedness can favor gene expression that is conditional on parental origin. “Imprinted” expression can cause matrigenes and patrigenes to have opposing effects on disputed phenotypes (Haig 2000a; =-=Holman and Kokko 2014-=-). Anatomical, physiological, and behavioral sex differences are thus associated with two selective asymmetries, one obvious (natural selection acts differently on genes in female and male bodies) and...

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... hemachromatosis protein (HFE) causes greater retention of iron and is costly in men because of iron overload but beneficial in women because of periodic loss of blood at menstruation and childbirth (=-=Little 1996-=-). Sexual antagonism is present because the HFE allele that encodes Tyr282 is beneficial in females but costly in males. Sexual conflict is absent because the allele’s expression in females does not r...