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...nst a drug trafficking organisation in New York. Network analysis has been employed previously in the study of criminal organisations, although its potential is possibly undeveloped (Berkowitz, 1982; =-=Wasserman and Faust, 1994-=-; Ianni and Ianni, 1990; Baron and Tindall, 1993; Sparrow, 1991; Coles, 2001). Even so, there are obvious difficulties in terms of confidentiality and security. Natarajan also observes that the inform...

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... beyond the purely functional concerns of ‘price and delivery’ that typify arm’s length business relationships. Even so, their benefits can be paradoxical and imply limitations as well as advantages (=-=Uzzi, 1997-=-). If a drug dealing network is to flourish and expand within the current drug market, self-imposed boundaries of kinship and ethnicity impose barriers that must be overcome. Too much reliance on thes...

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...employed previously in the study of criminal organisations, although its potential is possibly undeveloped (Berkowitz, 1982; Wasserman and Faust, 1994; Ianni and Ianni, 1990; Baron and Tindall, 1993; =-=Sparrow, 1991-=-; Coles, 2001). Even so, there are obvious difficulties in terms of confidentiality and security. Natarajan also observes that the information requirements of social scientists differ from those of en...

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...s Imprisonment is also a key generator of networks that has major implications for crossregional collaboration, as offenders from different locales mix with each other while serving prison sentences (=-=Shover, 1996-=-: pp. 162-74; Barnes et al., 2000: p. 41; Reuter and Haaga, 1989: p. 38). The shared experiences of imprisonment can cut across forms of inter-regional mistrust and hostility that otherwise would act ...

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...in terms of market level. Namely, high-volume dealers who nevertheless operate as sellers directly to drug consumers at retail-level – either as individuals or as teams (Curcione, 1997; Jacobs, 1999; =-=Williams, 1989-=-). Whether these should be classed as ‘middle-level’ dealers is unclear. Research on drug use and patterns of drug purchasing around the London club scene suggests similar kinds of ambiguity (Ward and...

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...t and order within illicit markets. Although we have some evidence on the prices of different drug commodities at different levels of the market, this is not an economic analysis of drug markets (cf. =-=Wagstaff and Maynard, 1988-=-; MacDonald and Pyle, 2000; Reuter and Kleiman, 1986). In summary, it is a contribution to the criminological and sociological understanding of middle and upperlevel drug dealing. Previous research on...

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... Power, 1989; Power et al., 1996; Preble and Casey, 1969; Williams, 1989). Even so, there are important considerations of safeguarding the personal safety of researchers engaged in this kind of work (=-=Williams et al., 1992-=-). However, the use of ethnographic methods is rarely feasible in the study of upper and middle-level trafficking owing to the degrees of secrecy and security that are employed. Adler (1985) is one of...

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...nd mechanisms, they are delivered to consumers in the most lucrative areas of drug demand, such as Europe and the USA. In this sense, drug markets are indelibly global and transnational in character (=-=Woodiwiss, 1993-=-). 11Middle market drug distribution Nevertheless, the view that we take here on the basis of the evidence gathered is that it is a mistake to see these organised crime networks as unified entities –...

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...ms, 1989). Whether these should be classed as ‘middle-level’ dealers is unclear. Research on drug use and patterns of drug purchasing around the London club scene suggests similar kinds of ambiguity (=-=Ward and Pearson, 1997-=-). Other research has identified drug dealers who move between different levels of operation, in terms of quantities bought and sold (Murphy et al., 1990; Adler, 1985) and our evidence also points to ...

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...l reach within any given country, while also reaching beyond and across national boundaries. So, we find increasing mention of ‘cross-border’ crime or ‘transnational’, or even global, crime networks (=-=Williams, 1993-=-). There is an obvious attraction in such views where drug trafficking is concerned. With the exception of synthetic drugs such as amphetamine or MDMA, illicit drug crops such as the opium poppy, coca...