Citation Context

... size 24 Helvetica font, in the center of the picture stimuli.sThese parameters wereschosen to make the string highly visible.sRelated distractor words were selected fromsthe online WordNet database (=-=Miller, 1995-=-; WordNet, 2010), to be a non-cognatessister term of the target picture item–that is, sharing a hypernym (e.g., “pet” for “cat”sand “dog”) with the target item (Meyer & Schriefers, 1991; Schriefers et...

Citation Context

...WI task has been shown to require inhibitory mechanisms thatsoverlap with those used during the Stroop task, (see de Zubricaray, Wilson,sMcMahon & Muthiah, 2001), a classic cognitive control measure (=-=Stroop, 1935-=-) andsso interactions of language switching with the PWI task may yet reflect sharedsreliance on more domain general cognitive control mechanisms, beyond the lexicalslevel.sIn addition, this paradigm ...

Citation Context

...t RT’s.s21smodels with random-effect slopes, in part due to difficulty calculating degrees ofsfreedom, t-values with an absolute value greater than 2 were considered to indicate assignificant effect (=-=Gelman & Hill, 2007-=-).sAccuracy.sFor all experiments, accuracy data from the main tasks aresreported both for descriptive statistics and statistical analyses along with the RT datasfor experiment.sDue to the nature of th...

Citation Context

...ality is not usually discussedsin conflict adaptation literature.sThat is, though typically conflict adaptation issthought of as adapting to conflict, in that conflict reduces subsequent costs (e.g.,s=-=Botvinick et al., 2001-=-), this might not be the case.sIn fact, the “Gratton effect”s(Gratton et al., 1992), upon which conflict adaptation is based, is framed as findingsincreased interference following congruent trials; an...

Citation Context

...g the Mix program (van Casteren & Davis, 2006) according to the followingsconstraints:s1. A fixed order for L1 and L2 language cues with a pattern of L1, L1,sL2, L2, based on alternating runs design (=-=Rogers & Monsell, 1995-=-).s17s2. A minimum distance of 10 items between two of the same picturesitems.s3. A maximum of 5 sequential trials with the same arrow congruencyscondition.s4. A maximum of 4 sequential trials with th...

Citation Context

...asse at as‘central bottleneck’, which requires the first task be completed before the second.sItsis argued that when a task is subject to this bottleneck, it indicates use of domaingeneral resources (=-=Pashler, 1994-=-).sNote, that not all tasks are subject to thissbottleneck; for example automatized processes such as word reading may bypass thesbottleneck, and it is important to consider how this may effect the re...

Citation Context

...e evidence that there is ascost associated with a switch between tasks (measured in increased reaction time in asswitch trial vs. stay trial; cf. switching costs outside of the linguistic domain; sees=-=Monsell, 2003-=-, for a review).sThere are often findings that switching costs are,scounter-intuitively, typically smaller when switching from a stronger to a weaker tasks(Wylie & Allport, 2000; cf. Monsell, Yeung & ...

Citation Context

...pose that in the context of congruentsand incongruent choices, a congruent trial encourages greater bottom-up (parallel)sprocessing compared to top-down (focused) processing of the upcoming stimuluss(=-=Gratton, et al., 1992-=-).sThis finding, termed conflict adaptation (or sometimes thesGratton effect) is more typically discussed as a reduced interference effect (that is, thes1 The flanker task is an inhibitory control tas...

Citation Context

...onset range was chosen so thatsthe arrow would likely appear during lemma selection, the point of predictedscompetition in the production process, based on estimates of the timing of wordsproduction (=-=Indefrey & Levelt, 2004-=-).sThus, the conflict from the arrow was timed tostax inhibitory resources at the predicted time point of lexical conflict in the languagesswitching task.sThe picture remained on the screen until the ...

Citation Context

... this chosen lexical item.sThe process however, is morescomplex than a single mapping from concept to sound, and it is generally agreed thatsit involves a hierarchy of stages from start to end (e.g., =-=Caramazza, 1997-=-; Dell &sO’Seaghdha, 1992; Levelt, Roelofs, & Meyer, 1999).sThough the procedure ofsspeaking involves processes at multiple stages, the focus of this paper specificallysconcerns processing involved in...

Citation Context

...ith this conflict is still unsettled, however,san influential model of bilingual production, the inhibitory model, proposes thatsbilinguals use inhibitory control to suppress the non-target language (=-=Green, 1998-=-).sSpecifically, the claim is tied to the role of domain-general control, suggesting that,srather than a mechanism devoted specifically to language control, these mechanismssare likely to also be invo...

Citation Context

...ibed in the introduction, PWIstasks require naming pictures while ignoring a distractor word, which adds conflict inslexical selection when the distractor is semantically similar to the target (e.g.,s=-=Schriefers et al., 1990-=-; Meyer & Schriefers, 1991).sAs such, this paradigm allowedsfor manipulation of level of conflict on a naming trial by manipulating the distractorsword’s relation to the picture.sThis paradigm also el...

Citation Context

... consensus model of word production, which focuses on these stages, issdepicted below in Figure 1a.sAs shown, a lexical concept activates an array of lexicalsitems.sThese items, (often called lemmas; =-=Kempen & Huijbers, 1983-=-), are abstractsword representations which carry semantic and syntactic information without wordform information (thus, for instance, distinguish between homonyms; Kempen &sHuijbers, 1983; Levelt et a...

Citation Context

...ibitory control in guiding her language use may transfer to improvedsperformance in domain-general attention and inhibitory control tasks, i.e., thesbilingual advantage (e.g., Abutalebi et al., 2012, =-=Bialystok, 1999-=-; Bialystok andsMartin, 2004; Bialystok, Craik, Grandy, et al., 2005; but see de Bruin, Treccani, &sDella Sala, 2014; Papp & Greenberg, 2013).s6sExperimental support for the general role of inhibitory...

Citation Context

...alancedsbilinguals, an analogous switch cost asymmetry.sThat is, there is a larger cost whensswitching into a dominant language (L1) than into a less dominant L2 (e.g., Guo, Liu,sMisra & Kroll, 2011; =-=Meuter & Allport, 1999-=-, but see Finkbeiner et al, 2006, Verhoefset al., 2009).sThese findings generally suggest that the L1 is a stronger competitor forsselection than the L2, and thus needs to be suppressed to a greater e...

Citation Context

...nsgreater.sIt is generally agreed, and is well substantiated with evidence of crossslanguage facilitation and interference, that multiple languages are in fact active at thespoint of selection (e.g., =-=Costa, Miozzo, & Caramazza, 1999-=-, Kroll, Bobb &sWodniecka, 2006), and thus that there is additional competition in bilingualsproduction (e.g., Bialystok & Craik, 2010 Gollan & Silverberg, 2001).sFigure 1bsdepicts a schematic of bili...

Citation Context

...dness Pi ctu resN am ingsT im e switch_cond stay switchs56sThe under additive interaction could be could be explained, in part, in terms ofsa bottleneck in processing (e.g., Ferreira & Pashler, 2002; =-=Pashler, 1989-=-) wherebyssome, but not all aspects of a given task require domain general, capacity-limitedsresources.sWhen capacity-demanding tasks are presented simultaneously, they reachsa bottleneck, and must be...

Citation Context

... PWIstasks require naming pictures while ignoring a distractor word, which adds conflict inslexical selection when the distractor is semantically similar to the target (e.g.,sSchriefers et al., 1990; =-=Meyer & Schriefers, 1991-=-).sAs such, this paradigm allowedsfor manipulation of level of conflict on a naming trial by manipulating the distractorsword’s relation to the picture.sThis paradigm also eliminated any direct change...

Citation Context

...matic of Experiment 2.sSquare and circles surrounding the digit arescues to name the digit in the L1, and L2, respectively.sQuestionnaire.sThe participants completed a shortened version of the LEAPQ (=-=Marian et al, 2007-=-), after completing the switching task.sThese questions includedsnumber of languages spoken, order of acquisition and dominance, and self-ratedscomfort in speaking, reading, and writing the two langua...

Citation Context

...task can in turn reduce conflict on an upcoming task, positing ansunder additive interaction between the two tasks.sGratton, Coles and Donchin (1992)sdemonstrated this with a continuous flanker task (=-=Eriksen, 1995-=-)1 used to investigatesadjustments in response after conflict, vs. non-conflict trials.sInterestingly, theresseemed to be more susceptibility to interference on trials that followed congruent,scompare...

Citation Context

...wherein low frequency distractors, believedsto have lower levels of activation in the mental lexicon (e.g., McClelland &sRumelhart, 1981), may cause more interference than high frequency distractorss(=-=Miozzo & Caramazza, 2003-=-).sYet, while the details of lexical interference in wordsproduction are clearly complicated and still under debate, it is nevertheless clear thatscompetition in selection does exist and plays a role ...

Citation Context

... Related Distractor relatedness Pi ctu resN am ingsT im e switch_cond stay switchs56sThe under additive interaction could be could be explained, in part, in terms ofsa bottleneck in processing (e.g., =-=Ferreira & Pashler, 2002-=-; Pashler, 1989) wherebyssome, but not all aspects of a given task require domain general, capacity-limitedsresources.sWhen capacity-demanding tasks are presented simultaneously, they reachsa bottlene...

Citation Context

...e complete story.sOther research has suggested that interference in switching tasks is not fromsinhibition of the dominant task, but is instead from activation of a non-dominant tasks(for review, see =-=Kiesel et al., 2010-=-).sAdditionally, there is some dispute about thesinterpretation of a switch cost asymmetry as a marker for inhibitory control (Bobbsand Wodnieka, 2013).sAs such, task maintenance and activation may al...

Citation Context

...that is responsible for their interaction.sPerceptual load, such increased visualscomplexity, has been shown to produce very different effects on attentional processessthan a working memory load (see =-=Lavie, 2010-=- for a review).sSpecifically, evidencesfrom perceptual load studies show that increasing task difficulty by, for examplesincreasing visual complexity in a scene, may actually reduce interference andsi...

Citation Context

... switch cost asymmetry.sThat is, there is a larger cost whensswitching into a dominant language (L1) than into a less dominant L2 (e.g., Guo, Liu,sMisra & Kroll, 2011; Meuter & Allport, 1999, but see =-=Finkbeiner et al, 2006-=-, Verhoefset al., 2009).sThese findings generally suggest that the L1 is a stronger competitor forsselection than the L2, and thus needs to be suppressed to a greater extent in order tosproduce the L2...

Citation Context

...fetime ofspracticing inhibitory control in guiding her language use may transfer to improvedsperformance in domain-general attention and inhibitory control tasks, i.e., thesbilingual advantage (e.g., =-=Abutalebi et al., 2012-=-, Bialystok, 1999; Bialystok andsMartin, 2004; Bialystok, Craik, Grandy, et al., 2005; but see de Bruin, Treccani, &sDella Sala, 2014; Papp & Greenberg, 2013).s6sExperimental support for the general r...

Citation Context

...asks, i.e., thesbilingual advantage (e.g., Abutalebi et al., 2012, Bialystok, 1999; Bialystok andsMartin, 2004; Bialystok, Craik, Grandy, et al., 2005; but see de Bruin, Treccani, &sDella Sala, 2014; =-=Papp & Greenberg, 2013-=-).s6sExperimental support for the general role of inhibitory control in bilingualsproduction is frequently shown in the context of language-switching tasks.sSimilar tosclassic task-switching paradigms...

Citation Context

...rements of the upcoming task, rather than simply an effectsof prior-task inhibition, reconfiguration does not appear to account for the cost in itssentirety (e.g., Koch, Gade, Schuch & Philipp, 2010; =-=Philipp & Koch, 2009-=-; Wylie &sAllport, 2000).sSpecifically, evidence that language switching costs reflect inhibitionsof the non-target language and not just task set reconfiguration comes from Philippsand Koch (2009), w...

Citation Context

...scussion.sOther accounts that offer alternatives to the inhibitory control hypothesis aresalso based on activation, rather than inhibition.sFirst, “persistent activation” (e.g.,sPhilipp et al., 2007; =-=Gade & Koch, 2005-=-) suggests that strong activation of thesweaker task persists, making the upcoming switch into a dominant task more difficult.sThus, rather than dealing with overcoming previous inhibition, persistent...

Citation Context

...at thespoint of selection (e.g., Costa, Miozzo, & Caramazza, 1999, Kroll, Bobb &sWodniecka, 2006), and thus that there is additional competition in bilingualsproduction (e.g., Bialystok & Craik, 2010 =-=Gollan & Silverberg, 2001-=-).sFigure 1bsdepicts a schematic of bilingual production, demonstrating increased competitionsfrom the additional active lemmas.s4sFigure 1.sa)s(Left): Model of monolingual speech production process (...

Citation Context

...sks are subject to thissbottleneck; for example automatized processes such as word reading may bypass thesbottleneck, and it is important to consider how this may effect the relative timing ofstasks (=-=Kleinman, 2013-=-).sAnother way to interfere with lexical selection is bysmanipulating demands on working memory.sBelke (2013) demonstrated this using asblocked cyclic naming task, comparing item naming in homogenous ...

Citation Context

...nt trial allows more efficient responding to a subsequentsincongruent stimulus.sAs it has been shown that conflict adaptation can occursbetween tasks that share similar levels of conflict processing (=-=Kan et al., 2013-=-), it isspossible that adaptation could potentially occur between the two tasks in a dual tasksparadigm.sIf so, an under-additive effect might indicate a shared level of conflictsprocessing between th...

Citation Context

...stractor relationship.sClassically, this task has found slowed picture naming when distractor wordss(presented either aurally or superimposed in print), are semantically related to thespictured item (=-=Damian & Bowers, 2003-=-; Glaser, & Düngelhoff, 1984; Schriefers,sMeyer & Levelt, 1990).sAs the production model suggests, a lexical concept willsactivate not only its lemma but also semantically similar lemmas.sThus, assema...