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...escalled this balance ambidextrous learning (Tushman & O’Reilly, 1996; Wei, Yi, & Yuan,s2011).sPost-modernism: Communities of practice perspective.sThe Communities of Practice (COP) view (Choi, 2006; =-=Lave & Wenger, 1991-=-)sfalls in the Post-modernist orientation (Halliday & Johnsson, 2010). In the COP view,slearning organizations are characterized by free exchange across communities of practice,snetworked knowledge an...

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...appeared in English in 1856. An epistemology may be understood as a process throughswhich an individual or group (von Krogh, Roos, & Slocum, 1994) perceives informationsfrom the external environment (=-=Kuhn, 1970-=-; Weick, 1969) and transforms it intosorganizational knowledge through an organizational learning process. Since the amountsof information an organization perceives may be overwhelming, the epistemolo...

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... ofscompetitors (accounting for both direct and indirect competitors) (Dess & Beard, 1984;sEmery & Trist, 1965; McCarthy, Lawrence, Wixted, & Gordon, 2010), industry levels ofsknowledge or spillover (=-=Cohen & Levinthal, 1990-=-; Lewin, Massini, & Peters, 2011; Nietos& Quevedo, 2005), and professional culture (Braganza, Awazu, & DeSouza, 2009; Ford,sVoyer, & Wilkinson, 2000), interviews quickly revealed this assumption to be...

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... between decisions made by the responsiblesrepresentatives and the final decision implemented by the organization?s In what systematic ways are decisions elaborated and changed by thesorganization? (=-=Cyert & March, 1963-=-, p. 21-22).sFifty dominant organizational learning survey instruments were closelysreviewed. It was discovered that each instrument was based on theoretical models, rathersthan real-world organizatio...

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...ive destructions(Schumpeter, 1947) that resists attempts to reduce and to organize. In particular, doubleloop learning, that type of learning which is reflective and destroys preconceivedscategories (=-=Argyris & Schon, 1978-=-), may drive against attempts to organize.sAlvesson and Karreman (2001) argued that the terms knowledge and managementswere incompatible since management, being about structure and control, cannot dea...

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...ured and that mental models (cognitions) aresordered in such a way as to optimize personal effectiveness within given situations.sSocial constructions become reality for those who exist in the realm (=-=Forrester, 1961-=-;sWeick & Roberts, 1993). When this occurs, other conceptions of reality are notsconsidered, and the possibility of alternative conceptions of reality is not even recognizeds(Donmoyer, 1990).sA majori...

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...anizational learning is definedsas:s Existing at the organizational level (King, Felin, & Whetten, 1991; Kuhn, 1970;sYorks, 2005), and providing a motivation orswillsapart from individual interestss(=-=Levitt & March, 1988-=-)s Indicating a change in organizational knowledge, that adds to, transforms, orsreduces organizational knowledge (Cummings & Worley, 2005; Delaney &sHuselid, 1996), and affects organizational behavi...

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...nowledge thatscan be put to use to improve the production process or any supporting task (Ebbers &sWijnberg, 2009). It is argued that knowledge, particularly procedural, represents a firm’ssresource (=-=Kogut & Zander, 1992-=-; Nonaka, 1991) and that competitive differencessbetween organizations are the result of differences in creating, retaining, and transferringsknowledge resources (Ebbers & Wijnberg, 2009). As such, th...

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... team produces more than each individual could do alone (Cummingss& Worley, 2005). If an organization is in fact synergistic, such that it either exceeds orsadds up to less than the sum of its parts (=-=Delaney & Huselid, 1996-=-), reducingsorganizational learning to individual-level learning may be erroneous. For example,salthough Ribbens (1997) suggested that directly applying Meyers-Briggs Type Indicators(MBTI) categories ...

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... novices learn through apprenticeship, observing experts, and completing tasks thatsare scaffolded in terms of increasing difficulty. Action learning may be one approach tosdriving learning in a COP (=-=Argote, 1999-=-).sDriver (2002) cautioned that communities of learners may have negative, as wellsas positive consequences for those involved in the community. First, shared values maysserve as internalized controls...

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...ed that organizations havesparticular learning cultures, influenced by their schema. Bartunek and Moch (1987)ssuggested that the terms paradigm (Knorr-Cetina, 1999; Kuhn, 1970), frame (Gardner,s2004; =-=Goffman, 1974-=-; Herriot, Levinthal, & March, 1985; March, 1994), theory-in-uses(Argyris & Schon, 1978), and cognitive map (Bougon, Weick, & Binkhorst, 1977) aressometimes used interchangeably to describe similar co...

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...y assumes that organizations can and do engage in learning,sand that learning is not limited to individual-level constructions of learning (Argyris,s1993; Argyris & Schon, 1978; Brown & Duguid, 1991; =-=Fiol & Lyles, 1985-=-; Miner &sMezias, 1996). It has been suggested that the ways in which organizations learn,sOrganizationalsLearning (Marsicks& Watkins, 2003)sSocial CognitionsTheory (Mitchell,sSmith, Morse,sSeawright,...

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...autopoeisis, or self-generation and recursivesprocesses, to create a perspective (von Krogh, Roos, & Slocum, 1994) that issinterdependent (Weick, 1969) and shared among group members (Donmoyer, 1990;s=-=Engestrom, 2001-=-; Knorr-Cetina, 1999; Tsoukas, 2005)s7s Involving both the generation and the arrangement of abstract categories to createsmeaning from data (Simon, 1991; Thagard, 1996), such that organizations not ...

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...g thescategories and their possible arrangement (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Categories weresrevised in light of scrutiny of data and emerging codes and categories through constantscomparative analysis (=-=Glaser, 1992-=-).sEach time that I felt that I had hit saturation with literature and things startedssounding the same, I sketched out circles with categories to see if any patterns weresstarting to emerge. The earl...

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...e, emotional, and behavioral state directedstoward desired organizational outcomes" (Shuck & Wollard, 2010, 15).s "the individual's involvement and satisfaction with as well as enthusiasm forswork" (=-=Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002-=-).sThis study proposes that like any essentially social phenomena, engagement notsonly can be looked at from the individual perspective, but perhaps more profitably, cansbe examined from the neglected...

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... to control a number of significant factors includingsindustry turbulence (Andriani & McKelvey, 2009; Chakravathy, 1997), density ofscompetitors (accounting for both direct and indirect competitors) (=-=Dess & Beard, 1984-=-;sEmery & Trist, 1965; McCarthy, Lawrence, Wixted, & Gordon, 2010), industry levels ofsknowledge or spillover (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990; Lewin, Massini, & Peters, 2011; Nietos& Quevedo, 2005), and prof...

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... of significant factors includingsindustry turbulence (Andriani & McKelvey, 2009; Chakravathy, 1997), density ofscompetitors (accounting for both direct and indirect competitors) (Dess & Beard, 1984;s=-=Emery & Trist, 1965-=-; McCarthy, Lawrence, Wixted, & Gordon, 2010), industry levels ofsknowledge or spillover (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990; Lewin, Massini, & Peters, 2011; Nietos& Quevedo, 2005), and professional culture (Bra...

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...oper & Pettit, 2002).sIn this view, a learning organization is characterized as an environment wheressynergy is created, developed, and nurtured based on collective actions and commonsinterpretation (=-=Hutchins, 1991-=-; Love, Huang, Edwards, & Irani, 2004; Weick & Roberts,s1993). One type of learning (i.e., single loop or double loop) (Argyris & Schon, 1978) issnot preferred over another (Love et al, 2004), but eac...

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...ctors.sArguably, the dichotomous approach that organizational learning models have taken tosreducing complexity--either by reducing learning to individual levels, or absorbing it intosgeneric models (=-=Boisot & Child, 1999-=-) may be an artifact of the deductive and inductivestheory-building processes that resulted in these models, and created the gap in thesliterature. Since research outcomes may be uniquely tied to epis...

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...at the terms paradigm (Knorr-Cetina, 1999; Kuhn, 1970), frame (Gardner,s2004; Goffman, 1974; Herriot, Levinthal, & March, 1985; March, 1994), theory-in-uses(Argyris & Schon, 1978), and cognitive map (=-=Bougon, Weick, & Binkhorst, 1977-=-) aressometimes used interchangeably to describe similar constructs. Organizational schemasmay be long-lasting, and the organizational assumptions may continue even as thesexternal competitive conditi...

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...ives (Rifkin & Fulop, 1997).sThird, some have suggested that members of learning organizations may engage in veryslittle new learning because such learning may be disruptive to the established normss(=-=Hendry, 1996-=-). Fourth, because norms and learning content have been established bysthose in power, members of the learning community may not be able to question thesvalidity of the organizational goals or exert a...

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...& Turner,s1986)sSemioticss(Pierce, 1903)sAnchorings(Tversky &sKahneman,s1981)sEpistemologys(Stacey, 2007)sSymbolicsInteractionisms(Blumer, 1969)sBoundedsRationalitys(Simon, 1955,s1991)sSchemasTheorys(=-=Harris, 1994-=-)s40spreserve, and transmit knowledge may be different from the ways individuals engage inslearning, since knowledge must not only be collectively created, but also connected to thesexisting organizat...

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...ndsvague to be very helpful in suggesting what should be done when a situation arises.sBecause of this failure to address practical issues, generic models are increasingly beingsrejected by scholars (=-=Fang, Lee, & Melissa, 2010-=-; Friedman, Lipshitz, & Popper, 2005;sHeraty & Morley, 2008; Miller & Lin, 2010; Ortenblad, 2005).sSecond, current organizational learning models focus solely on external factors.sBy analogy, this is ...

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...in suggesting what should be done when a situation arises.sBecause of this failure to address practical issues, generic models are increasingly beingsrejected by scholars (Fang, Lee, & Melissa, 2010; =-=Friedman, Lipshitz, & Popper, 2005-=-;sHeraty & Morley, 2008; Miller & Lin, 2010; Ortenblad, 2005).sSecond, current organizational learning models focus solely on external factors.sBy analogy, this is like trying to understand how a car ...

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... which are represented by particular research topics with slightlysdifferent foci.sIn general, Positivism is:s Discrete and cannot be described by another theory (Brookfield, 1992) and parsimoniouss(=-=Boisot & McKelvey, 2010-=-); tends to look at discrete individual units such as individualss Relies on deductive logic (Browaeys & Baets, 2003)s Interested in external goods (Halliday & Johnsson, 2010) and outcomess Assumed...

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...s emphasizing fit and alignment back to rationalseconomic models. It has been suggested that balanced scorecards and McKinsey 7Ssmodels have also been used as tools for aligning organizational focus (=-=Kaplan, 2005-=-).sMarketing models have also been adapted to organizational learning, and assumesthat the more closely that an organization’s learning fits its environment, the better ansorganization's performance w...

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...ganization.sWhile much of the research literature assumes that by limiting sampling within assingle industry, we will be able to control a number of significant factors includingsindustry turbulence (=-=Andriani & McKelvey, 2009-=-; Chakravathy, 1997), density ofscompetitors (accounting for both direct and indirect competitors) (Dess & Beard, 1984;sEmery & Trist, 1965; McCarthy, Lawrence, Wixted, & Gordon, 2010), industry level...

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...learning, profitability, orsfinancial benefits (Heeseok & Byounggu, 2003). Organizational knowledge can manifestsitself in a variety of ways, including changes in cognitions, routines, and behaviorss(=-=Argote, 2011-=-). Kanter (1983) and Van de Ven (1986) conceptualized organizationalslearning and its applications as principal processes in innovation. Bell (1976) andsDrucker (1999) argued that knowledge was fast b...

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... order to expand thesdefinition and increase comprehension of a construct concept (Chan, Cooper, &sTortopoulos, 2005). "Metaphors are integral to the way we act, interact, and think aboutsthe world" (=-=Audebrand, 2010-=-, p.413).sThese metaphors may either be explicit, or lesssself-aware. It has been argued that "all knowledge is either tacit or rooted in tacitsknowledge, it can only be expressed and transferred indi...

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...prove has become paramount. Under intense conditions of rapid change, itshas been suggested that organizational learning may be the only source of sustainablescompetitive advantage for organizations (=-=Bingham & Eisenhardt, 2011-=-; de Geus, 1988;sSpender, 1996), and further that there will continue to be increased learning requirementss(Desai, 2010), especially as high-tech products and services may require training andsdevelo...

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...nvolved in the community. First, shared values maysserve as internalized controls that serve as a much stronger and more effective controlssystem than would be possible in a traditional organization (=-=Driver, 2002-=-). Second,sbecause the learning organization is a tight-knit community, it may foster a singlesdominant view of the world, excluding diverse perspectives (Rifkin & Fulop, 1997).sThird, some have sugge...

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... be conceived of asspart of a single, larger process (Figure 6). "The back-and-forth flow of induction andsdeduction make these coordinate and not competing processes of theory building andstesting" (=-=Dubin, 1978-=-, p.230). Since each epistemology uses a different theory-buildings47sprocess, each epistemology is discrete and distinct from other epistemological types, andsmay describe a different facet of comple...

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...rs may need to destroy the alignment that made their organizations successful, toscreate revolutionary change.sSome have referred to an organization’s need to destroysalignment as a need for agility (=-=Jamali, Khoury, & Sahyoun, 2006-=-; Joiner & Josephs,s2007; McCann, Selsky, & Lee, 2009). This idea is similar to Argyris (1978)’s assertionsthat learning can be classified into two categories: single loop, or incrementalsevolutionary...

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...irm level of analysis.sThis strand of research may be further distinguished by the fact that it oftensdescribes the concept of building an organization’s absorptive capacity (Cohen &sLevinthal, 1990; =-=Lewin, Massini, & Peters, 2011-=-), or "dynamic capability that influencessthe firm’s ability to create and deploy the knowledge necessary to build othersorganizational capabilities, such as organizational learning and organizational...

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...pectives onsorganizational learning, which are represented by particular research topics with slightlysdifferent foci.sIn general, Positivism is:s Discrete and cannot be described by another theory (=-=Brookfield, 1992-=-) and parsimoniouss(Boisot & McKelvey, 2010); tends to look at discrete individual units such as individualss Relies on deductive logic (Browaeys & Baets, 2003)s Interested in external goods (Hallid...

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...on. Some havescalled this balance ambidextrous learning (Tushman & O’Reilly, 1996; Wei, Yi, & Yuan,s2011).sPost-modernism: Communities of practice perspective.sThe Communities of Practice (COP) view (=-=Choi, 2006-=-; Lave & Wenger, 1991)sfalls in the Post-modernist orientation (Halliday & Johnsson, 2010). In the COP view,slearning organizations are characterized by free exchange across communities of practice,sn...

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... that these relationships are embedded, such that the boundaries betweensthe organism and its environment are so complex and interactive that the boundariessbetween one and the other begin to mingle (=-=Golley, 1998-=-). Smith and Saint-Onge (1996)scalled this the evolutionary organization (EVO).sAs such, the dialectic betweensindividual organization and competitive environment does not follow a relationship baseds...

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...te and cannot be described by another theory (Brookfield, 1992) and parsimoniouss(Boisot & McKelvey, 2010); tends to look at discrete individual units such as individualss Relies on deductive logic (=-=Browaeys & Baets, 2003-=-)s Interested in external goods (Halliday & Johnsson, 2010) and outcomess Assumed to be objective and free from personal biases (Guba, 1990)s Functions by reducing complexity (Boisot & McKelvey, 20...

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... ≥ ∆C ) (Garratt,s2000). Garratt read Revans’ equation to imply that if learning is significantly greater thansthe rate of environmental change, it may in fact be a waste of organizational resourcess(=-=Garratt, 2000-=-). By this definition, if two companies in a given competitive market nichesengage in learning, and one company learns as much as possible, while the otherscompany learns the minimum required to keep ...

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...c approach of viewingsphenomena in terms of discrete units (Jayanti, 2011a).sOne prevalent version of the simulated-systems approach is found in the dominantsSenge school (Blackman & Henderson, 2005; =-=Ford, Voyer, & Wilkinson, 2000-=-; Mets &sTorokoff, 2007), which uses discrete, fragmented units to describe the process ofsorganizational becoming. In this perspective, there are five disciplines of the learningsorganization: person...

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...pplied to a wide range of fields from advertisingsresearch--examining denotative, connotative, and ideological meanings--to the study ofsaesthetics in art, to cybernetics, and even industrial design (=-=Bouissac, 1998-=-). Accordingsto Peschl (1998), three semiotically relevant themes dominate the theoretical basis ofsartificial intelligence: (1) knowledge representation, (2) knowledge manipulation andsinference (3) ...

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...r hard quantitativesindicators such as productivity (i.e., number of widgets produced), or validated measuress(Song & Kolb, 2009) of turnover intention, job satisfaction, and organizationscommitment (=-=Davis & Daley, 2008-=-; Dirani, 2009; Egan, Yang, & Bartlett, 2004;sJyothibabu, Farooq, & Pradhan, 2011; Massingham & Diamant, 2009). These modelsstypically rely on measures of a single “ultimate” outcome (Steers, 1975).sP...

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...singly turbulent environments (D’Aveni, 2007; Slater &sNarver, 1995) including globalization, accelerated technological change, and thesintensification, decentralization, and destabilization of work (=-=Dervitsiotis, 2006-=-;sMckinley & Scherer, 2000; Sigglekow & Rivkin, 2005), the ability to learn in order toschange and improve has become paramount. Under intense conditions of rapid change, itshas been suggested that or...

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..., 1992) and parsimoniouss(Boisot & McKelvey, 2010); tends to look at discrete individual units such as individualss Relies on deductive logic (Browaeys & Baets, 2003)s Interested in external goods (=-=Halliday & Johnsson, 2010-=-) and outcomess Assumed to be objective and free from personal biases (Guba, 1990)s Functions by reducing complexity (Boisot & McKelvey, 2010)s Values knowledge based on its correspondence to exter...

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...ia or path dependence whereby thesorganization continues to learn the sorts of things that it learned in the past, withouts8srespect to the skills it will need in the current competitive environment (=-=Curado, 2006-=-;sMarch, 1991).sFor the purposes of this study, the process of organizational learning is definedsas:s Existing at the organizational level (King, Felin, & Whetten, 1991; Kuhn, 1970;sYorks, 2005), an...

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...sed to work, as a meanssof analogy for how the complex real world functions. Complex systems are defined assthose in which agents, elements, and subsystems interact within densely connectedsnetworks (=-=Espinosa & Porter, 2011-=-), and agents are unable to entirely control theirs29sinternal processes due to the external events (Cyphert & Saiia, 2004). Because thescomponents of complex systems are interacting, the interaction ...

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...ough lessstangible means. Tribal knowledge significantly shapes organizational culture andspractices, contributes to process inconsistencies (Mueller & Saxena, 2011) and is oftensresistant to change (=-=Allen, 2013-=-). Because things have been done in a certain way in thespast, they often continue to be done in that manner, even though the new employees dosnot know why.sThe flow of tribal knowledge is frequently ...

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...cus on principles of learning based on socialslearning theory (Davis & Luthans, 1980; Sligo, 1996). Meanings are symbolic; as theysare co-created and shared individuals develop common understandings (=-=Brownell, 2008-=-)swhich facilitate the sharing of expertise and increase contributions while continuoussproduction of online documents builds an organizational knowledge base (El Sawy &sBowles, 1997). Over time, the ...

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...id, 1996), and affects organizational behaviors and organizational outcomess(Schulz, 2001)s Encompassing the sub-processes of creating, encoding, retaining, and transferringsknowledge (Argote, 2011; =-=Ebbers & Wijnberg, 2009-=-; Karatas-Ozkan & Murphy,s2010; Newell & Simon, 1972), for instance, through routines and the matching ofsprocedures to situations (Levitt & March, 1988)s Persistently impacting organizational cultur...

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... should investigate the causes of all celestial and nonperceptible phenomena by making a comparison of these with the various ways in whichsan analogous phenomenon takes place in our own experience" (=-=Epicurus, 1963-=-, p.44).sGavetti and Rivkin (2005) described analogical reasoning as a process through which asperson faced with an unfamiliar problem or opportunity thinks back to a similar situationsthey have seen ...

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...through routines and the matching ofsprocedures to situations (Levitt & March, 1988)s Persistently impacting organizational culture and actions over time even after thesexit of organization members (=-=Ford, 2008-=-; Levitt & March, 1988; Sinkula, 1994)sor changes in organizational systems, processes, and products (Tuttle, 2003) sincesgroups vacillate less than individuals (Weick, 1969)sIt is hypothesized that i...

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...e more prevalent Positivistic approach of viewingsphenomena in terms of discrete units (Jayanti, 2011a).sOne prevalent version of the simulated-systems approach is found in the dominantsSenge school (=-=Blackman & Henderson, 2005-=-; Ford, Voyer, & Wilkinson, 2000; Mets &sTorokoff, 2007), which uses discrete, fragmented units to describe the process ofsorganizational becoming. In this perspective, there are five disciplines of t...

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...s of theirsenvironment (Simon, 1955, 1991; Thagard, 1996)—on organizational routines (Cyert &sMarch, 1992; Levinthal & March, 1993; Paap & Katz, 2005; Vasudeva & Anand, 2011),sorganizational culture (=-=Braganza, Awazu, & DeSouza, 2009-=-), and strategy (Tversky &sKahneman, 1986).sDubin (1978) attributed bounded rationality to deep-seated factors that make us human:sWe simply are not capable of seeing things whole. Nor is man[kind] ca...

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...he research literature assumes that by limiting sampling within assingle industry, we will be able to control a number of significant factors includingsindustry turbulence (Andriani & McKelvey, 2009; =-=Chakravathy, 1997-=-), density ofscompetitors (accounting for both direct and indirect competitors) (Dess & Beard, 1984;sEmery & Trist, 1965; McCarthy, Lawrence, Wixted, & Gordon, 2010), industry levels ofsknowledge or s...

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...flow of information. Others have suggested that developing an agreement tos"lease back" retirees can be helpful to ensuring that the tribal knowledge is not lost whensemployees exit the organization (=-=Collins, 2011-=-).sDocumented knowledge is important, but constitutes only a small fraction of ansorganization's knowledge.sDocumentation processes can take significant amounts ofsemployee time, particularly when it ...

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...gents, elements, and subsystems interact within densely connectedsnetworks (Espinosa & Porter, 2011), and agents are unable to entirely control theirs29sinternal processes due to the external events (=-=Cyphert & Saiia, 2004-=-). Because thescomponents of complex systems are interacting, the interaction is the unit of interest,srather than discrete units (Jayanti, 2011b). Much of complex systems research is based onsLewin (...

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...e the process ofsorganizational becoming. In this perspective, there are five disciplines of the learningsorganization: personal mastery, which involves the process of clarifying goals,sprioritizing (=-=DeVilbiss & Gilbert, 2005-=-), and "seeing reality objectively" (Ng, 2004)—ifs21ssuch a thing is in fact possible; surfacing mental models that influence how an individualsunderstand the world and how he or she takes action; bui...

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...In general, Pragmatism is marked by:s•sAbductive logic (Haig, 2008)s• Concern for dynamic wholeness; interconnections between units are the unit of interestsrather than the discrete units themselves (=-=Garrido, 2009-=-; Ng, 2004; Ortenblad, 2010)s•sDual focus on both the means and ends (McKelvey, 2004)s• Interest in connection between internal and external good (Halliday & Johnsson, 2010)s• Values knowledge that ha...

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...the marketsorientation. This implies that an organization can become more market-oriented throughscentralized corporate directives. Kohli and Jaworski’s model has primarily been tested insUS markets (=-=Grey, Sheelagh, Boshoff, & Matheson, 1998-=-).sTwo, Narver and Slater (1990)'s operationalized market orientation model isscomprised of three behavioral components: one, customer orientation, two, competitorsorientation, three, inter-functional...

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...ch as individualss Relies on deductive logic (Browaeys & Baets, 2003)s Interested in external goods (Halliday & Johnsson, 2010) and outcomess Assumed to be objective and free from personal biases (=-=Guba, 1990-=-)s Functions by reducing complexity (Boisot & McKelvey, 2010)s Values knowledge based on its correspondence to external reality (Miller & Lin, 2010)sPositivism: Individual-level learning perspective...

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...en a situation arises.sBecause of this failure to address practical issues, generic models are increasingly beingsrejected by scholars (Fang, Lee, & Melissa, 2010; Friedman, Lipshitz, & Popper, 2005;s=-=Heraty & Morley, 2008-=-; Miller & Lin, 2010; Ortenblad, 2005).sSecond, current organizational learning models focus solely on external factors.sBy analogy, this is like trying to understand how a car works without looking u...

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... 1969). These meanings aresmediated by symbols and signification. Following Dewey, there is an emphasis on thesenvironment, since human beings are best understood in the context of their environments(=-=Hickman & Alexander, 1998-=-). Symbolic interactionism stands in contrast to classicalsconditioning or stimulus response theory which suggests that a stimulus triggers ansautomatic and predictable response (Kuhlmann, 2012).sBase...

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...nue to be increased learning requirementss(Desai, 2010), especially as high-tech products and services may require training andsdevelopment departments to support customers as well as internal staff (=-=Jayanti, 2012-=-).s2sAccording to Spender (1992), "Several lines of theorizing now converge on an emergingsparadigm that finds the organization's identity and competitive advantage in the dynamicsof its knowledge and...

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...tion (Gassmann, Enkel, & Chesbrough, 2010). This research examines the impactssof collaborative external work sites such as networked or virtual companies (Bednar &sGodkin, 2009), industry alliances (=-=Lee, Liang, & Liu, 2010-=-), university-industry alliancess(Perkmann, Neely, & Walsh, 2011), outsourcing (Zirpoli & Becker, 2011), andscrowdsourcing (Ebner, Leimeister, & Krcmar, 2009) on organizational learning andsinnovation...