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Cognitive architecture and instructional design
- Educational Psychology Review
, 1998
"... Cognitive load theory has been designed to provide guidelines intended to assist in the presentation of information in a manner that encourages learner activities that optimize intellectual performance. The theory assumes a limited capacity working memory that includes partially independent subcompo ..."
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Cited by 503 (53 self)
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Cognitive load theory has been designed to provide guidelines intended to assist in the presentation of information in a manner that encourages learner activities that optimize intellectual performance. The theory assumes a limited capacity working memory that includes partially independent subcomponents to deal with auditory/verbal material and visual/2- or 3-dimensional information as well as an effectively unlimited long-term memory, holding schemas that vary in their degree of automation. These structures and functions of human cognitive architecture have been used to design a variety of novel instructional procedures based on the assumption that working memory load should be reduced and schema construction encouraged. This paper reviews the theory and the instructional designs generated by it. KEY WORDS: cognition; instructional design; learning; problem solving.
Cognitive tutors: Lessons learned
- The Journal of the Learning Sciences 4(2
, 1995
"... This article reviews the 10-year history of tutor development based on the ..."
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Cited by 317 (46 self)
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This article reviews the 10-year history of tutor development based on the
The ‘digital natives’ debate: a critical review of the evidence.
- British Journal of Educational Technology,
, 2008
"... Abstract The idea that a new generation of students is entering the education system has excited recent attention among educators and education commentators. Termed 'digital natives' or the 'Net generation', these young people are said to have been immersed in technology all the ..."
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Cited by 210 (7 self)
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Abstract The idea that a new generation of students is entering the education system has excited recent attention among educators and education commentators. Termed 'digital natives' or the 'Net generation', these young people are said to have been immersed in technology all their lives, imbuing them with sophisticated technical skills and learning preferences for which traditional education is unprepared. Grand claims are being made about the nature of this generational change and about the urgent necessity for educational reform in response. A sense of impending crisis pervades this debate. However, the actual situation is far from clear. In this paper, the authors draw on the fields of education and sociology to analyse the digital natives debate. The paper presents and questions the main claims made about digital natives and analyses the nature of the debate itself. We argue that rather than being empirically and theoretically informed, the debate can be likened to an academic form of a 'moral panic'. We propose that a more measured and disinterested approach is now required to investigate 'digital natives' and their implications for education.
Cognitive load measurement as a means to advance cognitive load theory
- Educational Psychologist
, 2003
"... In this article, we discuss cognitive load measurement techniques with regard to their contribu-tion to cognitive load theory (CLT). CLT is concerned with the design of instructional methods that efficiently use people’s limited cognitive processing capacity to apply acquired knowledge and skills to ..."
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Cited by 169 (21 self)
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In this article, we discuss cognitive load measurement techniques with regard to their contribu-tion to cognitive load theory (CLT). CLT is concerned with the design of instructional methods that efficiently use people’s limited cognitive processing capacity to apply acquired knowledge and skills to new situations (i.e., transfer). CLT is based on a cognitive architecture that consists of a limited working memory with partly independent processing units for visual and auditory information, which interacts with an unlimited long-term memory. These structures and func-tions of human cognitive architecture have been used to design a variety of novel efficient in-structional methods. The associated research has shown that measures of cognitive load can re-veal important information for CLT that is not necessarily reflected by traditional performance-based measures. Particularly, the combination of performance and cognitive load measures has been identified to constitute a reliable estimate of the mental efficiency of instruc-tional methods. The discussion of previously used cognitive load measurement techniques and their role in the advancement of CLT is followed by a discussion of aspects of CLT that may benefit by measurement of cognitive load. Within the cognitive load framework, we also discuss some promising new techniques.
Reducing cognitive load by mixing auditory and visual presentation modes
- Journal of Educational Psychology
, 1995
"... This article reports findings on the use of a partly auditory and partly visual mode of presentation for geometry worked examples. The logic was based on the split-attention effect and the effect of presentation modality on working memory. The split-attention effect occurs when students must split t ..."
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Cited by 168 (9 self)
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This article reports findings on the use of a partly auditory and partly visual mode of presentation for geometry worked examples. The logic was based on the split-attention effect and the effect of presentation modality on working memory. The split-attention effect occurs when students must split their attention between multiple sources of information, which results in a heavy cognitive load. Presentation-modality effects suggest that working memory has partially independent processors for handling visual and auditory material. Effective working memory may be increased by presenting material in a mixed rather than a unitary mode. If so, the negative consequences of split attention in geometry might be ameliorated by presenting geometry statements in auditory, rather than visual, form. The results of 6 experiments supported this hypothesis. In recent years, working memory limitations have been identified as a major factor that needs to be considered when instruction is designed. Researchers have used cognitive load theory (e.g., Sweller, 1988, 1989, 1993, 1994) to sug-gest that many commonly used instructional procedures are
Variability of worked examples and transfer of geometrical problem-solving skills: A cognitive-load approach
- Journal of Educational Psychology
, 1994
"... Four computer-based training strategies for geometrical problem solving in the domain of computer numerically controlled machinery programming were studied with regard to their effects on training performance, transfer performance, and cognitive load. A low- and a high-variability conventional condi ..."
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Cited by 149 (30 self)
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Four computer-based training strategies for geometrical problem solving in the domain of computer numerically controlled machinery programming were studied with regard to their effects on training performance, transfer performance, and cognitive load. A low- and a high-variability conventional condition, in which conventional practice problems had to be solved (followed by worked examples), were compared with a low- and a high-variability worked condition, in which worked examples had to be studied. Results showed that students who studied worked examples gained most from high-variability examples, invested less time and mental effort in practice, and attained better and less effort-demanding transfer performance than students who first attempted to solve conventional problems and then studied work examples. In complex cognitive domains such as mathematics, phys-ics, or computer programming, problem solutions can often be characterized by a hierarchical goal structure. The goal of these solutions can be attained only by successfully attaining all subgoals. Learning and performance of complex cogni-tive tasks are typically constrained by limited processing ca-
Abstract planning and perceptual chunks: elements of expertise in geometry
- COGNITIVE SCIENCE
, 1990
"... We present o new model of skilled performance in geometry proof problem solving called the Diagram Configuration model (DC). While previous models plan level. They focus on the key steps and skip the less Important ones. DC models this abstract planning behavior by parsing geometry problem diagrams ..."
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Cited by 130 (21 self)
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We present o new model of skilled performance in geometry proof problem solving called the Diagram Configuration model (DC). While previous models plan level. They focus on the key steps and skip the less Important ones. DC models this abstract planning behavior by parsing geometry problem diagrams into perceptual chunks, called diagram configurations. which cue relevant schematic knowledge. We provide verbal protocol evidence that DC’s schemas correspond with the step-skipping inferences experts make in their initial planning. We compare DC with other models of geometry expertise and then, in the final section, we discuss more general implications of our research. DC’s reasoning hos important similarities with Lorkin’s (1988) display-based reasoning approach and Johnson-Loird’s (1983) mental model approach. DC’s perceptually hosed schemas ore o step towards a unified explanation of (1) experts’ superior problem-solving effectiveness, (2) experts’ superior problem-state memory, and (3) experts’ ability, in certain domains. to solve relatively simple problems by pure forward inferencing.
Exploring the Assistance Dilemma in Experiments with Cognitive Tutors
"... Intelligent tutoring systems are highly interactive learning environments that have been shown to improve upon typical classroom instruction. Cognitive Tutors are a type of intelligent tutor based on cognitive psychology theory of problem solving and learning. Cognitive Tutors provide a rich problem ..."
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Cited by 98 (34 self)
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Intelligent tutoring systems are highly interactive learning environments that have been shown to improve upon typical classroom instruction. Cognitive Tutors are a type of intelligent tutor based on cognitive psychology theory of problem solving and learning. Cognitive Tutors provide a rich problem-solving environment with tutorial guidance in the form of step-by-step feedback, specific messages in response to common errors, and on-demand instructional hints. They also select problems based on individual student performance. The learning benefits of these forms of interactivity are supported, to varying extents, by a growing number of results from experimental studies. As Cognitive Tutors have matured and are being applied in new subject-matter areas, they have been used as a research platform and, particularly, to explore interactive methods to support metacognition. We review experiments with Cognitive Tutors that have compared different forms of interactivity and we reinterpret their results as partial answers to the general question: How should learning environments balance information or assistance giving and withholding to achieve optimal student learning? How best to achieve this balance remains a fundamental open problem in instructional science. We call this problem the “assistance dilemma ” and emphasize the need for further science to yield specific conditions and parameters that indicate when and to what extent to use information giving versus information withholding forms of interaction.
The real story behind story problems: Effects of representations on quantitative reasoning
- Journal of Learning Sciences
, 2004
"... This article explores how differences in problem representations change both the per-formance and underlying cognitive processes of beginning algebra students engaged in quantitative reasoning. Contrary to beliefs held by practitioners and researchers in mathematics education, students were more suc ..."
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Cited by 90 (23 self)
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This article explores how differences in problem representations change both the per-formance and underlying cognitive processes of beginning algebra students engaged in quantitative reasoning. Contrary to beliefs held by practitioners and researchers in mathematics education, students were more successful solving simple algebra story problems than solving mathematically equivalent equations. Contrary to some views of situated cognition, this result is not simply a consequence of situated world knowl-edge facilitating problem-solving performance, but rather a consequence of student difficulties with comprehending the formal symbolic representation of quantitative relations. We draw on analyses of students ’ strategies and errors as the basis for a cognitive process explanation of when, why, and how differences in problem repre-sentation affect problem solving. We conclude that differences in external represen-tations can affect performance and learning when one representation is easier to com-prehend than another or when one representation elicits more reliable and meaningful solution strategies than another. A commonly held belief about story problems at both the arithmetic and algebra levels is that they are notoriously difficult for students. Support for this belief can be seen among a variety of populations including the general public, textbook au-
Help seeking and help design in interactive learning environments
- Review of Educational Research
, 2003
"... Many interactive learning environments (ILEs) offer on-demand help, intended to positively influence learning. Recent studies report evidence that although effective help-seeking behavior in ILEs is related to better learning outcomes, learners are not using help facilities effectively. This selecti ..."
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Cited by 80 (23 self)
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Many interactive learning environments (ILEs) offer on-demand help, intended to positively influence learning. Recent studies report evidence that although effective help-seeking behavior in ILEs is related to better learning outcomes, learners are not using help facilities effectively. This selective review (a) examines theoretical perspectives on the role of on-demand help in ILEs, (b) reviews literature on the relations between help seeking and learning in ILEs, and (c) identifies reasons for the lack of effective help use. We review the effect of system-related factors, of student-related factors, and of interactions between these factors. The interaction between metacognitive skills and cognitive factors is important for appropriate help seeking, as are a potentially large space of system-related factors as well as interactions among learner- and system-related factors. We suggest directions for future research.
