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336
The principles of psychology
, 1890
"... This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access. It has been accepted for inclusion in University Honors Theses by an authorized administrator of ..."
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Cited by 2466 (2 self)
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This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access. It has been accepted for inclusion in University Honors Theses by an authorized administrator of
Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice toward Female Leaders
- Psychological Review
, 2002
"... A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that f ..."
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Cited by 294 (4 self)
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A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles. Leadership has been predominantly a male prerogative in cor-porate, political, military, and other sectors of society. Although women have gained increased access to supervisory and middle management positions, they remain quite rare as elite leaders and top executives. To explain this phenomenon, public and scientific discussion has centered on the idea of a “glass ceiling”—a barrier of prejudice and discrimination that excludes women from higher level leadership positions (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995; Morrison, White, & Van Velsor, 1987). To further this discussion, we advance a theory of prejudice toward female lead-ers and test the theory in relation to available empirical research. This integrative theory builds on social psychologists ’ tradition of studying prejudice and stereotyping and industrial–organizational psychologists ’ tradition of studying perceptions of managerial roles. The popularity of the glass ceiling concept may stem from the rarity of women in major leadership posts, despite the presence of equality or near equality of the sexes on many other indicators. A number of statistics thus suggest equality: In the United States, women make up 46 % of all workers (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001b) and 45 % of those in executive, administrative, and managerial occupations (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001a); women possess 51 % of bachelor’s degrees and 45 % of all
The gender similarities hypothesis
- American Psychologist
, 2005
"... The differences model, which argues that males and females are vastly different psychologically, dominates the popular media. Here, the author advances a very different view, the gender similarities hypothesis, which holds that males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variab ..."
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Cited by 192 (3 self)
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The differences model, which argues that males and females are vastly different psychologically, dominates the popular media. Here, the author advances a very different view, the gender similarities hypothesis, which holds that males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables. Results from a review of 46 metaanalyses support the gender similarities hypothesis. Gender differences can vary substantially in magnitude at different ages and depend on the context in which measurement occurs. Overinflated claims of gender differences carry substantial costs in areas such as the workplace and relationships.
The psychology of self-defense: self-affirmation theory
- Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
, 2006
"... In major league baseball, a hitter could have a long and productive career by maintaining a.300 average, that is, by getting a base hit 30 % of the time. A great deal of money could be earned and fame accrued. Yet the other 70% of the time, this player would have failed. The vast majority of attempt ..."
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Cited by 135 (10 self)
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In major league baseball, a hitter could have a long and productive career by maintaining a.300 average, that is, by getting a base hit 30 % of the time. A great deal of money could be earned and fame accrued. Yet the other 70% of the time, this player would have failed. The vast majority of attempts to
A threatening intellectual environment: Why females are susceptible to experiencing problem-solving deficits in the presence of males
"... Does placing females in environments in which they have contact with males, cause them to experience deficits in problem-solving performance? Is a situational cue, such as gender composition, sufficient for creating a threatening intellectual environment for females-- an environment that elicits per ..."
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Cited by 109 (4 self)
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Does placing females in environments in which they have contact with males, cause them to experience deficits in problem-solving performance? Is a situational cue, such as gender composition, sufficient for creating a threatening intellectual environment for females-- an environment that elicits performance-impinging stereotypes? To explore these questions, participants completed a difficult math or verbal test in 3-person groups, which consisted of two people of the same sex as the participant (same-sex condition) or of the opposite sex (minority condition). Minority females experienced performance deficits in the math test only, whereas males performed equally well on the math test in both conditions. Further investigation showed that females' deficits were proportional to the number of males in their surrounding. Even females who were placed in a mixed-sex majority condition (2 females and 1 male) experienced moderate but significant deficits. Findings are discussed in relation to t...
Stereotype threat effects on black and white athletic performance
- J. Personality and Social Psychology
, 1999
"... Two experiments showed that framing an athletic task as diagnostic of negative racial stereotypes about Black or White athletes can impede their performance in sports. In Experiment 1, Black participants performed significantly worse than did control participants when performance on a golf task was ..."
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Cited by 98 (7 self)
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Two experiments showed that framing an athletic task as diagnostic of negative racial stereotypes about Black or White athletes can impede their performance in sports. In Experiment 1, Black participants performed significantly worse than did control participants when performance on a golf task was framed as diagnostic of "sports intelligence. " In comparison, White participants performed worse than did control participants when the golf task was framed as diagnostic of "natural athletic ability. " Experi-ment 2 observed the effect of stereotype threat on the athletic performance of White participants for whom performance in sports represented a significant measure of their self-worth. The implications of the findings for the theory of stereotype threat (C. M. Steele, 1997) and for participation in sports are discussed. Since no one can be indifferent to the abuse and expectations of others we must anticipate that ego defensiveness will frequently be found among members of groups that are set off for ridicule, disparagement, and discrimination. It could not be otherwise. (Allport, 1954, p. 143) Gordon Allport (1954) observed that being the target of a negative stereotype about an important social identity is distressing
2007): "Teachers and the Gender Gaps in Student Achievement
- Journal of Human Resources
"... A prominent class of explanations for the gender gaps in student outcomes focuses on the interactions between students and teachers. In this study, I examine whether assignment to a same-gender teacher influences student achievement, teacher perceptions of student performance, and student engagement ..."
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Cited by 90 (5 self)
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A prominent class of explanations for the gender gaps in student outcomes focuses on the interactions between students and teachers. In this study, I examine whether assignment to a same-gender teacher influences student achievement, teacher perceptions of student performance, and student engagement. This study's identiflcation strategy exploits a unique matched-pairs feature of a major longitudinal study, which provides contemporaneous data on student outcomes in two different subjects. Within-student com-parisons indicate that assignment to a same-gender teacher significantly improves the achievement of both girls and boys as well as teacher perceptions of student performance and student engagement with the teacher's subject. I.
An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance
- Psychological Review
, 2008
"... Research showing that activation of negative stereotypes can impair the performance of stigmatized individuals on a wide variety of tasks has proliferated. However, a complete understanding of the processes underlying these stereotype threat effects on behavior is still lacking. The authors examine ..."
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Cited by 84 (9 self)
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Research showing that activation of negative stereotypes can impair the performance of stigmatized individuals on a wide variety of tasks has proliferated. However, a complete understanding of the processes underlying these stereotype threat effects on behavior is still lacking. The authors examine stereotype threat in the context of research on stress arousal, vigilance, working memory, and selfregulation to develop a process model of how negative stereotypes impair performance on cognitive and social tasks that require controlled processing, as well as sensorimotor tasks that require automatic processing. The authors argue that stereotype threat disrupts performance via 3 distinct, yet interrelated, mechanisms: (a) a physiological stress response that directly impairs prefrontal processing, (b) a tendency to actively monitor performance, and (c) efforts to suppress negative thoughts and emotions in the service of self-regulation. These mechanisms combine to consume executive resources needed to perform well on cognitive and social tasks. The active monitoring mechanism disrupts performance on sensorimotor tasks directly. Empirical evidence for these assertions is reviewed, and implications for interventions designed to alleviate stereotype threat are discussed.
Self-Discipline Gives Girls the Edge: Gender
- in SelfDiscipline, Grades, and Achievement Test Scores.” Journal of Educational Psychology 98
, 2006
"... Throughout elementary, middle, and high school, girls earn higher grades than boys in all major subjects. Girls, however, do not outperform boys on achievement or IQ tests. To date, explanations for the underprediction of girls ’ GPAs by standardized tests have focused on gender differences favoring ..."
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Cited by 75 (4 self)
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Throughout elementary, middle, and high school, girls earn higher grades than boys in all major subjects. Girls, however, do not outperform boys on achievement or IQ tests. To date, explanations for the underprediction of girls ’ GPAs by standardized tests have focused on gender differences favoring boys on such tests. The authors ’ investigation suggests an additional explanation: Girls are more selfdisciplined, and this advantage is more relevant to report card grades than to achievement or aptitude tests. Eighth-grade girls at an urban magnet school were more self-disciplined than their male counterparts according to delay of gratification measures and self-report, teacher, and parent ratings. Whereas girls earned higher grades in all courses, they did only marginally better on an achievement test and worse on an IQ test. Mediation analyses suggested girls earned higher GPAs at least in part because they were more self-disciplined.
Battle of the sexes: Gender stereotype confirmation and reactance in negotiations. Paper presented at the Academy of Management Meetings
, 2000
"... The authors examined how gender stereotypes affect negotiation performance. Men outperformed women when the negotiation was perceived as diagnostic of ability (Experiment 1) or the negotiation was linked to gender-specific traits (Experiment 2), suggesting the threat of negative stereotype confirmat ..."
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Cited by 74 (3 self)
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The authors examined how gender stereotypes affect negotiation performance. Men outperformed women when the negotiation was perceived as diagnostic of ability (Experiment 1) or the negotiation was linked to gender-specific traits (Experiment 2), suggesting the threat of negative stereotype confirmation hurt women's performance relative to men. The authors hypothesized that men and women confirm gender stereotypes when they are activated implicitly, but when stereotypes are explicitly activated, people exhibit stereotype reactance, or the tendency to behave in a manner inconsistent with a stereotype. Experiment 3 confirmed this hypothesis. In Experiment 4, the authors examined the cognitive processes involved in stereotype reactance and the conditions under which cooperative behaviors between men and women can be promoted at the bargaining table (by activating a shared identity that transcends gender). Negotiation skills are essential for success in all areas of life (Bazerman, 1998). Because of the competitive nature of negotia-tions, one of the most commonly asked questions is "How well do men and women do at the bargaining table relative to one another? " This question usually arises from an implicit theory that women are inherently more cooperative and collaborative than
