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130
Intelligent Tutoring Goes to School in the Big City
- International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education
, 1997
"... Abstract. This paper reports on a large-scale experiment introducing and evaluating intelligent tutoring in an urban High School setting. Critical to the success of this project has been a client-centered design approach that has matched our client's expertise in curricular objectives and class ..."
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Cited by 421 (118 self)
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Abstract. This paper reports on a large-scale experiment introducing and evaluating intelligent tutoring in an urban High School setting. Critical to the success of this project has been a client-centered design approach that has matched our client's expertise in curricular objectives and classroom teaching with our expertise in artificial intelligence and cognitive psychology. The Pittsburgh Urban Mathematics Project (PUMP) has produced an algebra curriculum that is centrally focused on mathematical analysis of real world situations and the use of computational tools. We have built an intelligent tutor, called PAT, that supports this curriculum and has been made a regular part of 9th grade Algebra in 3 Pittsburgh schools. In the 1993-94 school year, we evaluated the effect of the PUMP curriculum and PAT tutor use. On average the 470 students in experimental classes outperformed students in comparison classes by 15% on standardized tests and 100 % on tests targeting the PUMP objectives. This study provides further evidence that laboratory tutoring systems can be scaled up and made to work, both technically and pedagogically, in real and unforgiving settings like urban high schools. 1.
External Cognition: How do Graphical Representations Work?
- INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HUMAN-COMPUTER STUDIES
, 1996
"... Advances in graphical technology have now made it possible for us to interact with information in innovative ways, most notably by exploring multimedia environments and by manipulating three-dimensional virtual worlds. Many benefits have been claimed for this new kind of interactivity, a general ass ..."
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Cited by 341 (27 self)
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Advances in graphical technology have now made it possible for us to interact with information in innovative ways, most notably by exploring multimedia environments and by manipulating three-dimensional virtual worlds. Many benefits have been claimed for this new kind of interactivity, a general assumption being that learning and cognitive processing are facilitated. We point out, however, that little is known about the cognitive value of any graphical representations, be they good old-fashioned (e.g. diagrams) or more advanced (e.g. animations, multimedia, virtual reality). In our paper, we critique the disparate literature on graphical representations, focusing on four representative studies. Our analysis reveals a fragmented and poorly understood account of how graphical representations work, exposing a number of assumptions and fallacies. As an alternative we propose a new agenda for graphical representation research. This builds on the nascent theoretical approach within cognitive science that analyses the role played by external representations in relation to internal mental ones. We outline some of the central properties of this relationship that are necessary for the processing of graphical representations. Finally, we consider how this analysis can inform the selection and design of both traditional and advanced forms of graphical technology.
Cognitive tutors: Lessons learned
- The Journal of the Learning Sciences 4(2
, 1995
"... This article reviews the 10-year history of tutor development based on the ..."
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Cited by 317 (46 self)
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This article reviews the 10-year history of tutor development based on the
An effective metacognitive strategy: Learning by doing and explaining with a computer-based cognitive tutor
- Cognitive Science
, 2002
"... Recent studies have shown that self-explanation is an effective metacognitive strategy, but how can it be leveraged to improve students ’ learning in actual classrooms? How do instructional treatments that emphasizes self-explanation affect students ’ learning, as compared to other instructional tre ..."
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Cited by 220 (54 self)
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Recent studies have shown that self-explanation is an effective metacognitive strategy, but how can it be leveraged to improve students ’ learning in actual classrooms? How do instructional treatments that emphasizes self-explanation affect students ’ learning, as compared to other instructional treatments? We investigated whether self-explanation can be scaffolded effectively in a classroom environment using a Cognitive Tutor, which is intelligent instructional software that supports guided learning by doing. In two classroom experiments, we found that students who explained their steps during problem-solving practice with a Cognitive Tutor learned with greater understanding compared to students who did not explain steps. The explainers better explained their solutions steps and were more successful on transfer problems. We interpret these results as follows: By engaging in explanation, students acquired better-integrated visual and verbal declarative knowledge and acquired less shallow procedural knowledge. The research demonstrates that the benefits of self-explanation can be achieved in a relatively simple computer-based approach that scales well for classroom use. © 2002
A task-analytic approach to the automated design of graphic presentations
- ACM Transactions on Graphics
, 1991
"... BOZ is an automated graphic design and presentation tool that designs graphics based on an analysis of the task for which a graphic is intended to support. When designing a graphic, BOZ aims to optimize two ways in which graphics help expedite human performance of information-processing tasks: (1) a ..."
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Cited by 165 (1 self)
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BOZ is an automated graphic design and presentation tool that designs graphics based on an analysis of the task for which a graphic is intended to support. When designing a graphic, BOZ aims to optimize two ways in which graphics help expedite human performance of information-processing tasks: (1) allowing users to substitute simple perceptual inferences in place of more demanding logical inferences, and (2) streamlining users ’ search for needed information. BOZ analyzes a logical description of a task to be performed by a human user and designs a provably equivalent perceptual task by substituting perceptual inferences in place of logical inferences in the task description. BOZ then designs and renders an accompanying graphic that encodes and structures data such that performance of each perceptual inference is supported and visual search is minimized. BOZ produces a graphic along with a perceptual procedure describing how to use the graphic to complete the task, A key feature of BOZ’S approach is that it is able h design different presentations of the same information customized to the requirements of different tasks, BOZ is used to design graphic premntations of airline schedule information to support five different airline reservation tasks. Reaction time studies done with real users for one task and graphic show that the BOZ-designed graphic significantly reduces users ’ perfor-mance time to the task. Regression analyses link the observed e~ciency savings tn BOZS two key design principles: perceptual inference substitutions and pruning of visual search.
Cognitive Skill Acquisition
- ANNUAL REVIEW OF PSYCHOLOGY
, 1996
"... Cognitive skills acquisition is acquiring the ability to solve problems in intellectual tasks, where success is determined more by the subjects' knowledge than their physical prowess. This chapter reviews reseach conducted in the last ten years on cognitive skill acquisition. It covers the i ..."
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Cited by 104 (4 self)
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Cognitive skills acquisition is acquiring the ability to solve problems in intellectual tasks, where success is determined more by the subjects' knowledge than their physical prowess. This chapter reviews reseach conducted in the last ten years on cognitive skill acquisition. It covers the initial stages of acquiring a single principle or rule, the initial stages of acquiring a collection of interacting pieces of knowledge, and the final stages of acquiring a skill, wherein practice causes increases speed and accuracy.
The real story behind story problems: Effects of representations on quantitative reasoning
- Journal of Learning Sciences
, 2004
"... This article explores how differences in problem representations change both the per-formance and underlying cognitive processes of beginning algebra students engaged in quantitative reasoning. Contrary to beliefs held by practitioners and researchers in mathematics education, students were more suc ..."
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Cited by 90 (23 self)
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This article explores how differences in problem representations change both the per-formance and underlying cognitive processes of beginning algebra students engaged in quantitative reasoning. Contrary to beliefs held by practitioners and researchers in mathematics education, students were more successful solving simple algebra story problems than solving mathematically equivalent equations. Contrary to some views of situated cognition, this result is not simply a consequence of situated world knowl-edge facilitating problem-solving performance, but rather a consequence of student difficulties with comprehending the formal symbolic representation of quantitative relations. We draw on analyses of students ’ strategies and errors as the basis for a cognitive process explanation of when, why, and how differences in problem repre-sentation affect problem solving. We conclude that differences in external represen-tations can affect performance and learning when one representation is easier to com-prehend than another or when one representation elicits more reliable and meaningful solution strategies than another. A commonly held belief about story problems at both the arithmetic and algebra levels is that they are notoriously difficult for students. Support for this belief can be seen among a variety of populations including the general public, textbook au-
Supporting the Use of External Representations in Problem Solving: the Need for Flexible Learning Environments
, 1995
"... External representations (ERs) are effective in reasoning due to their cognitive and semantic properties. We investigated subjects' use of ERs in their solutions to analytical reasoning problems. Two sources of data were analysed. The first consisted of a large corpus of ERs (`workscratchings&a ..."
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Cited by 72 (6 self)
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External representations (ERs) are effective in reasoning due to their cognitive and semantic properties. We investigated subjects' use of ERs in their solutions to analytical reasoning problems. Two sources of data were analysed. The first consisted of a large corpus of ERs (`workscratchings') used by students in their solutions to problems administered via paper and pencil tests. The second source of data was collected using switchER, a computer-based system that administered the problems, provided a range of ER construction environments for the subject to choose between and which dynamically logged user--system interactions. SwitchER was developed in order to study the process and time-course of ER use and to investigate the mechanisms (such as ER switching) by which subjects resolve impasses in reasoning. The results showed great diversity of ER use across subjects, allowing the utility of various ERs under differing task conditions to be studied. The range of ERs used by subjects ...
The Transfer of Scientific Principles Using Concrete and Idealized Simulations
- THE JOURNAL OF THE LEARNING SCIENCES
, 2005
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Cognitive Tutor: Applied research in mathematics education
"... For 25 years, we have been working to build cognitive models of mathematics, which have become a basis for middle- and high-school curricula. We discuss the theoretical background of this approach and evidence that the resulting curricula are more effective than other approaches to instruction. We a ..."
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Cited by 68 (20 self)
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For 25 years, we have been working to build cognitive models of mathematics, which have become a basis for middle- and high-school curricula. We discuss the theoretical background of this approach and evidence that the resulting curricula are more effective than other approaches to instruction. We also discuss how embedding a well specified theory in our instructional software allows us to dynamically evaluate the effectiveness of our instruction at a more detailed level than was previously possible. The current widespread use of the software is allowing us to test hypotheses across large numbers of students. We believe that this will lead to new approaches both to understanding mathematical cognition and to improving instruction. For 25 years, we have been working to understand mathematical cognition through the use of cognitive modeling and applying that knowledge to constructing curricula (both text and software) that are more educationally effective than preexisting approaches. This work has been successful on many levels. It has advanced knowledge of cognition in general and of mathematical cognition in particular; the resulting curricula have proven to be educationally effective in school settings; and the curricula, as commercial products, have found a strong following in the school marketplace. We believe that our development model, which involves a close and continuing relationship among basic research, applied research, and field testing, can serve as a model for other efforts to apply cognitive psychology to education. In this article, we describe some of the history of our efforts, our view of the relationship between basic research and development, and some directions for further research.
