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...ms (Howard, 1995). Early approaches to work performance did not account for the full range of behaviors that contribute to effectiveness when systems are uncertain and interdependent (Campbell et al., 1993; Murphy & Jackson, 1999). In response to this limitation, new constructs have been introduced that encompass an expanded set of responsibilities. These constructs include citizenship performance (Smith, Organ, & Near, 1983), contextual performance (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993), adaptive performance (Hesketh & Neal, 1999; Pulakos, Arad, Donovan, & Plamondon, 2000), and proactivity (Crant, 2000; Frese & Fay, 2001; Parker, Williams, & Turner, 2006). Table 1 identifies the main approaches to work performance that are in current use and lists their key constructs. As Rotundo and Sackett (2002) noted, partially overlapping constructs now proliferate within the performance literature. There is currently no theoretical framework for differentiating and integrating the various constructs that describe individual performance and its link to effectiveness. Although performance frameworks and taxonomies have been developed (e.g., Borman & Motowidlo, 1993; Campbell et al., 1993; Johnson, 2003; Welbourne, Johnson...

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... models that require greater selfdirection, and the growth of decentralized organizational structures all increase the need for employees to use their initiative and be self-starting (Campbell, 2000; =-=Frese & Fay, 2001-=-; Frohman, 1997; Ibarra, 2003; Parker, 2000). Such proactive behavior has been shown to lead to positive individual and organizational outcomes, such as sales performance (Crant, 1995), entrepreneuria...

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...ng problems (LePine & Van Dyne, 1998), selling issues (Ashford, Rothbard, Piderit, & Dutton, 1998), and taking charge to implement constructive changes to work methods (Bettencourt, 2004; Choi, 2007; =-=Frese & Fay, 2001-=-; Morrison & Phelps, 1999). Research has shown that both affiliative and challenging forms of citizenship behaviors can contribute to effective outcomes in organizations (e.g., Podsakoff et al., 2000;...

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... conceptually distinct from personal initiative, which describes the extent to which employees do things without being told, anticipate opportunities and problems, and persist in overcoming barriers (=-=Frese & Fay, 2001-=-). Moreover, personal initiative typically describes the dispositional tendency for individuals to be self-starting, proactive, and persistent; conceptually, then, it is similar to the idea of the pro...

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... (Ibarra, 1999; Markus & Nurius, 1986). Second, we build on research that portrays individuals as active participants in constructing their organizational experience through how they take initiative (=-=Frese & Fay, 2001-=-; Morrison & Phelps, 1999), seek information about themselves (Ashford, 1986), and create and draw from relationships with others (Wrzesniewski, Dutton, & Debebe, 2003). Third, we draw on research sho...

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...tter, Motowidlo, & Cross, 2000). Despite these benefits, supervisors do not always appreciate proactivity. Researchers have begun to point out that supervisors may see proactive behavior as a threat (=-=Frese & Fay, 2001-=-; Miceli & Near, 1994; Parker et al., 2006), an ingratiation attempt (Bolino, 1999), or an ill-timed distraction (Chan, 2006). As our opening vignette illustrates, supervisors often fail to reward, an...

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...ed leadership may have negative implications for receptivity to employee proactivity using two conceptual lenses: status conflict and communication styles. Status conflict. Researchers have frequently observed that employees’ proactive behaviors can be threatening to leaders, as they have the potential to introduce unwelcome changes (Grant et al., 2009; Miceli & Near, 1995), make leaders feel embarrassed, incompetent, or vulnerable by exposing their flaws and weaknesses (Morrison & Milliken, 2000), and usurp leaders’ authority by venturing “beyond what management wants their employees to do” (Frese & Fay, 2001: 171). We predict that extraverted leaders will be especially prone to experiencing employees’ proactive behaviors as threatening. Extraverted leaders tend to seek out status (Anderson, John, Keltner, & Kring, 2001; Barrick, Stewart, & Piotrowski, 2002), which allows them to maintain a hierarchy in which their assertiveness and dominance are complemented by obedience and submissiveness on the part of employees. When their status is threatened, extraverted leaders may be “willing to engage in conflict and to use defensive and/or unconstructive tactics with others” (Ames & Flynn, 2007: 309). In...

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...nt perceptions and reactions to challenges encountered in job crafting for employees embedded in different social locations in organizations will reveal additional relationships among position, perceptions, and job crafting efforts. Practical implications Job crafting matters to organizations. At a time when employees are increasingly expected to find proactive ways to meet organizational objectives and contribute the best of their talents to their organizations, managers are more likely than ever to rely on the initiative employees take to job craft (e.g., Crant, 2000; Grant & Ashford, 2008; Frese & Fay, 2001; Parker, Williams, & Turner, 2006). However, given the differences we found in how higher- and lower-rank employees make sense of the challenges they face as they attempt to craft their jobs and the implications of these differences for action, organizations may find that there is more they can offer to facilitate this form of proactivity at work. For example, lower-rank employees report engaging in adaptive moves largely designed to enlist others’ support for job crafting. At the same time, higher-rank employees report sensing an outer limit on their ability to engage in job crafting because...

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...ship variables (participative and transformational leadership) as predictors of proactive service performance. Both American (e.g., Bateman & Crant, 1993; Morrison & Phelps, 1999) and European (e.g., =-=Frese & Fay, 2001-=-) researchers have emphasized that individuals exhibiting proactive behavior engage in self-started activities going beyond requirements, adopt a long-term orientation involving forward thinking, and ...