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... Cities tend to be the nodes of major markets, economic activity and opportunity. Protected areas are often located distant from major cities, where the opportunity cost of land is lower (Sims, 2010; =-=Joppa and Pfaff, 2009-=-). We calculate the average distance from each municipality to the nearest city (each municipality is broken into 1 ha parcels and the average euclidean distance from the set of parcels within each mu...

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...are acknowledged as being amongst the principle threats to biodiversity globally (Vié et al., 2009). With a new global target for coverage by PAs set at 17% for terrestrial habitats and inland water following the 10th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity there is a need to expand the network in a strategic way (Margules and Pressey, 2000; Eken et al., 2004; Rodrigues et al., 2004a). Locations of new PAs have been identified either for pragmatic reasons (Margules 168 R.A. Holland et al. / Biological Conservation 148 (2012) 167–179and Pressey, 2000; Joppa and Pfaff, 2009) or on the basis of our understanding of better known groups, predominantly mammals, birds and amphibians (Brooks et al., 2004; Rodrigues et al., 2004b; Ricketts et al., 2005; Rondinini et al., 2005) in the belief that these will act as surrogates for lesser known groups. However, surrogacy between taxonomic groups from differing realms (i.e. freshwater vs. terrestrial) is low (Rodrigues and Brooks, 2007; Darwall et al., 2011) with studies in the United States (Herbert et al., 2010; Lawrence et al., 2011) and Brazil (Nogueira et al., 2010) demonstrating that existing PAs provide significantly ...

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...rol for location bias in road placement (Chomitz and Gray 1996), and have sought to control for endogeneity of protected area placement through matching methods (Andam et. al 2008; Pfaff et. al 2009; =-=Joppa and Pfaff 2009-=-). In addition to quantitative analysis, several important studies have sought to glean an understanding of the primary drivers of deforestation through comprehensive 19literature reviews and synthes...

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...n in that country is heavily biased to higher elevations and less productive soils [23]. Protection in many other countries is also biased to high altitude or steep areas that are difficult to access =-=[24]-=-. Low protection equality could also result from the protection of ecoregions that are the most threatened or globally iconic. This is probably the case in Brazil, in which most of the globally import...

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...make apples to apples comparisons.sMany of thesesfeatures have been teased out of observational data through various forms of statistical analysissincluding those used in this report.sJoppa and Pfaff =-=[11]-=- found that PAs were more likely to beslocated farther from urban areas and roads, and at higher elevations and steeper slopes.sCollectively, these types of characteristics are often appropriately lab...

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...n of the METT. As a consequence these could not be analyzed and are not shown on the figure. Error bars are based on the standard error. 696 J. Geldmann et al. / Biological Conservation 191 (2015) 692–6994.2. What determines change? Protected area size had a significant correlation with increases in management effectiveness scores. Similar patterns have been found both for terrestrial (Struhsaker et al., 2005; Joppa and Pfaff, 2011) and marine protected areas (Edgar et al., 2014). However whether available resources are better invested in larger protected areas, often located in remote areas (Joppa and Pfaff, 2009) is a heated discussion. Larger protected areas have a proportionately smaller edge to pressures and through their remote location often result in relatively intact biodiversity values (Mittermeier et al., 2003) making them attractive for furtherconservation investment. However, large and remote protected areas often experience little pressure, protected or not (Joppa and Pfaff, 2011) suggesting resources may be better invested in smaller protected areas which would otherwise experience greater biodiversity loss (Craigie et al., 2014). We found a significant positive correlation between local ...

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...istributions of protection are common. Protected areas worldwide are concentrated to high elevations and poor soils (Caicco et al., 1995; Cantú et al., 2004; Hansen and Rotella, 2002; Jennings, 2000; =-=Joppa and Pfaff, 2009-=-; Oldfield et al., 2004; Pauchard and Villarroel, 2002; Pressey et al., 2000, 2002; Rouget et al., 2003; Scott et al., 2001a; Vellend et al., 2008; Wright et al., 2001). Moreover, due to internal spat...