Abstract not found

The aim of this paper is to present a motivational model of the coach–athlete relationship that describes how coaches may influence athletes ’ motivation. In line with cognitive evaluation theory (Deci and Ryan, 1980, 1985) and the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand, 1997, 2000), a motivational sequence is proposed where coaches ’ personal orientation towards coaching, the context within which they operate, and their perceptions of their athletes ’ behaviour and motivation influence coaches ’ behaviours. Also, coaches ’ behaviours in the form of autonomy-supportive behaviours, provision of structure and involvement have a beneficial impact on athletes ’ needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, which, in turn, nurture athletes ’ intrinsic motivation and self-determined types of extrinsic motivation. Here, we first review coaches’ autonomy-supportive behaviours. We then describe the psychological processes through which coaching behaviours have a positive influence on athletes ’ intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation. Finally, we identify social and personality processes that determine coaching behaviours.

This study examined whether contextual and personal motivational variables, taken from selfdetermination theory, could predict student cognitive and affective experiences in school physical education (PE), as well as participation in optional PE in the following school year. Structural equation modeling analysis with a sample of 302 British adolescents showed that need support provided by the PE teachers was related to student need satisfaction, which in turn predicted self-determined motivation. The latter predicted directly various motivational indices and indirectly future participation in optional PE. Furthermore, multivariate analysis of variance tests showed that those who opted for PE (n ϭ 171), compared with those who did not (n ϭ 131), reported more positive motivational experiences in the previous school year. The findings call for the promotion of self-determined motivation in PE in order to enhance student positive experiences and participation rates. Keywords: need satisfaction, need support, motivation, physical activity, adolescents It is widely acknowledged that the physical activity levels of young people are currently below the levels thought to be sufficient to promote health benefits However, in order to increase physical activity levels, it is important that children are sufficiently, and more important, appropriately motivated to participate in PE lessons. Although most students are intrinsically motivated to participate in PE classes, there are many children who are extrinsically motivated or lack motivation to participate A theoretical framework that is being increasingly used to study motivation in PE is self-determination theory (SDT; In contrast, extrinsic motivation is evident when individuals perform an activity because they value its associated outcomes (e.g., public praise, extrinsic rewards) more than the activity itself. Three types of extrinsic motivation have been measured in classroom education and in PE The third type of behavioral regulation described by An important behavioral outcome that has been assessed in classroom education (e.g., Two studies have replicated the prospective design used by In a subsequent study, The studies by Pelletier et al. In sum, the primary purpose of the present study was to expand on previous studies on dropout An SDT-based motivational model was tested that hypothesized that the degree to which PE teachers supported their students' needs would predict the latter's need satisfaction. The indicators of need support were autonomy support, teacher emphasis on individual improvement criteria, and promotion of cooperative learning. It was also hypothesized that student need satisfaction would predict an index of self-determined motivation. In turn, it was expected that self-determined motivation would negatively predict negative affect and positively predict student levels of concentration and effort in the class as well as their intentions to participate in optional PE. Last, it was expected that behavioral intentions would positively predict actual behavioral choices. In terms of mean differences between participants and nonparticipants, it was hypothesized that the participants would rate their past experiences in compulsory PE as more adaptive. More specifically, it was expected that the participants would report that their teachers used more task-involving criteria for success (see Method Participants The participants were 460 (girls n ϭ 145; boys n ϭ 315) British 15-year-old school students from eight schools in the north of England. Almost all students were Caucasians. As explained in the Procedure below, follow-up information regarding participation status was obtained from 302 of those students. With the exception of the confirmatory factor analyses that used the full sample, all other analyses reported in the Results section used the subsample of 302 students. Measures Learning Climate Questionnaire (LCQ; Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire-2 (PMCSQ-2; Newton, Basic Need Satisfaction Scale (BNSC; Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ; Negative affect in PE. Four adjectives that measure negative affect (e.g., "disappointed," "embarrassed") were used to assess typical negative affect experienced by students in PE. These adjectives were taken from Ebbeck and Weiss (1998). Each adjective was assessed on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (always). Participants responded to the stem "In this PE class I feel . . ." Ebbeck and Weiss have provided psychometric evidence for the use of these items in youth sport. Concentration in the PE classes. Three items were written in the present study to measure students' concentration in PE classes. An example item is "In PE, I concentrate on the skills/tasks I have to do." Each item was assessed on a 7-point scale (1 ϭ strongly disagree; 7 ϭ strongly agree). Intention to participate in optional PE. Two items were written in the present study to measure students' intention to participate in optional PE classes in the following school year. An example item is "I intend not to do PE next year." Each item was assessed on a 7-point scale (1 ϭ strongly disagree; 7 ϭ strongly agree). Teacher rating of students' effort. The PE teachers were asked to provide an overall rating of each student's levels of effort in PE. For each student, one PE teacher provided a single rating on a 7-point scale (1 ϭ no effort at all; 7 exceptionally high levels of effort). The PE teachers were told that an objective of the study was to assess how hard the students try to improve their skills and whether they "give their best" during PE lessons. Procedure Informed consent was obtained from the participants and the head teacher of each school. The questionnaires were administered at the start of a PE lesson. Prior to questionnaire administration, the students were told that their responses would be kept confidential and that they could decline 446 NTOUMANIS to participate or withdraw at any time. The questionnaires were administered in late spring and early summer to 460 fifteen-year-old students (Year 11 students, according to the British school system). In the fall of the same year, the schools were contacted and were asked to confirm whether the students had enrolled on an optional Year 12 PE program. In Great Britain, after the age of 16 years, participation in PE is optional. Academic-that is, science-based PE programs ("A-level PE") offered by some schools to 16-year-olds were not targeted, because the purpose of this study was to focus on health-enhancing physical activity programs. To protect anonymity, the students were matched on the basis of their dates of birth, gender, and school identification. It was possible to obtain information for 302 students (girls n ϭ 91; boys n ϭ 211), of whom 171 (girls n ϭ 39; boys n ϭ 132) chose to enroll in an optional PE program. There are various reasons that it was not possible to obtain information for the remaining 158 students 1 (girls n ϭ 54; boys n ϭ 104): (a) Some students dropped out of school altogether; (b) others relocated to a different part of the country; and (c) some students moved to a different school in the same area, but the new school declined to provide the necessary information. Results Preliminary Analyses Confirmatory factor analysis using the full sample of 460 participants was carried out for all scales to examine their factorial structure. To evaluate model fit, the two-index presentation strategy was used For brevity reasons, the results of the confirmatory factor analyses are not presented here but are available on request. All scales were found to have satisfactory fit indices with the exception of the Need Satisfaction scale whose fit indices were very poor: SattoraBentler 2 (186, N ϭ 460) ϭ 838.60, p Ͻ .001; SRMR ϭ .11; CFI ϭ .70; RMSEA ϭ .10. Inspection of the modification indices and the standardized loadings suggested the removal of all negatively worded items. Therefore, these items (3 from each BNSC subscale) were excluded from any further analyses. The revised Need Satisfaction scale had a satisfactory model fit: SattoraBentler 2 (186, N ϭ 460) ϭ 838.60, p Ͻ .001; SRMR ϭ .06; CFI ϭ .93; RMSEA ϭ .06. Descriptive statistics and internal reliability coefficients (Cronbach's alpha) for the 302 participants are presented in Testing a Motivational Model of Participation in Optional PE A motivational model of participation in optional PE classes was constructed on the basis of Vallerand's (1997) model of motivation and previous work by A consideration in the present study was the ratio of the number of participants per estimated parameter. According to 2 Furthermore, in the same way, an overall need support factor was created whose indicators were the three composite scores reflecting the extent to which the PE teacher supported students' autonomy, gave emphasis to individual criteria for improvement, and promoted student cooperative learning. 3 Following the example of many previous studies (e.g., The proposed model was tested with EQS 6.1 using structural equation modeling with robust maximum likelihood estimation 1 A comparison of the 302 students for whom participation status information was obtained in the fall and the 158 students for whom such information could not be obtained showed that the latter were more amotivated and had lower teacher ratings of effort. There were no significant mean differences in any of the other variables reported in

In accordance with self-determination theory (SDT;

For example, emotional self-control often has been associated with ego-depletion. Participants who suppressed reactions to an emotionally evocative film (humorous or sad) performed worse on a subsequent anagram task than did participants who were free to express their emotions and thus did not have to exert self-control (Baumeister et al., 1998, Study 3). In a study by Muraven, Tice, and Baumeister (1998), participants were exposed to a distressing, sad film clip and were instructed either to stifle their emotional response or to amplify it. Participants in both of these emotion-regula-tion conditions (i.e., either decreasing or increasing their response) persisted for less time on a subsequent handgrip task that required physical stamina, relative to control group participants who were not told to alter their emotional states. Appetite regulation, another form of self-control, also has been regularly linked to ego-depletion in the literature. For instance, resisting the temptation of choco-late chip cookies caused participants to give up more quickly on a subsequent, unsolvable, geometric, figure-tracing task (Baumeister et al., 1998, Study 1). Vohs and Heatherton (2000) found that dieters asked to sit next to a bowl of candies were more ego-depleted, as indi-cated later by their eating more ice cream (Study 1) and persisting less on a demanding cognitive task (Study 2)

purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of dimensions of coaching behavior to intrinsic need satisfaction and indices of psychological and physical well-being among male adolescent athletes. Participants were 265 British soccer and cricket players (Mage = 16.44). Structural equation modeling analysis, using maximum likelihood robust method, showed athletes ’ perceptions of autonomy support, mastery focus, and social support from the coach to predict their satis-faction of the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, respectively. The satisfaction of the need for competence emerged as the most important predictor of psychological and physical well-being. The findings suggest that particular aspects of the social environment may be salient for fostering particular psycho-logical needs. The results also underline the importance of perceived competence for the psychological and physical welfare of adolescents in team sports. KEY WORDS: self-determination theory; need satisfaction; well-being; coaching behavior; young athletes. In today’s world of sport, pain rather than pleasure is often presented as the hall-

The present research complements extant variable-centered research that focused on the dimensions of autonomous and controlled motivation through adoption of a person-centered approach for identifying motivational profiles. Both in high school students (Study 1) and college students (Study 2), a cluster analysis revealed 4 motivational profiles: a good quality motivation group (i.e., high autonomous, low controlled); a poor quality motivation group (i.e., low autonomous, high controlled); a low quantity motivation group (i.e., low autonomous, low controlled); and a high quantity motivation group (i.e., high autonomous, high controlled). To compare the 4 groups, the authors derived predictions from qualitative and quantitative perspectives on motivation. Findings generally favored the qualitative perspective; compared with the other groups, the good quality motivation group displayed the most optimal learning pattern and scored highest on perceived need-supportive teaching. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.

Recognizing recent criticisms concerning the cross-cultural generalizability of self-determination theory (SDT), the authors tested the SDT view that high school students in collectivistically oriented South Korea benefit from classroom experiences of autonomy support and psychological need satisfaction. In Study 1, experiences of autonomy, competence, and relatedness underlaid Korean students' most satisfying learning experiences, and experiences of low autonomy and low competence underlaid their least satisfying learning experiences. In Study 2, psychological need satisfaction experiences were associated with productive (achievement and engagement) and satisfying (intrinsic motivation and proneness to negative affect) student outcomes. Study 3 replicated and extended Study 2's structural equation modeling findings by showing that the hypothesized model explained students' positive outcomes even after controlling for cultural and parental influences, including the collectivistic value orientation. Study 4 replicated the earlier cross-sectional findings with a semester-long prospective 3-wave design. The authors discuss how the findings support the motivation theory's cross-cultural generalizability.

Previous studies in education have inspected the relations between students ’ autonomous versus con-trolled motivation and relevant outcomes. In most of those studies a global index of self-determined motivation was created. The purpose of this article was to examine (a) how the different types of motivation proposed by Self-Determination Theory combine into distinct profiles as identified by cluster analysis and (b) the links between those profiles and objective criteria of achievement. In Study 1, motivation toward physical education was assessed at the beginning of a 10-week gymnastics teaching cycle, and performance was assessed at the end of the cycle among a sample of high school students (N! 210). Study 2 (N! 215) extended Study 1 by controlling students ’ initial performance, measuring the effort they exerted and recording their grades. Cluster analyses revealed three motivational profiles: self-determined, non-self-determined, and moderate levels of both types of motivation. Path analysis showed that the self-determined profile was related to the highest achievement. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for the assessment of students ’ motivation and the consequences of motivational profiles for educational outcomes.

The purpose of this study was to provide an in-depth account of amotivation in compulsory school physical education by examining its major causes, the way it is displayed, and how it can be tackled. From an initial participant pool of 390 British schoolchildren ages 14 to 15 years, 21 of them (15 girls and 6 boys) were selected to participate in semi-structured interviews. They were categorized as being amotivated based on their responses to a questionnaire measuring motivation in physical education. Three main perceived causes of amotivation were identified in the interviews: learned helplessness beliefs, low need satisfaction, and contextual factors. Amotivation was mainly displayed by nonattendance, low involvement in the class, and low intention to be physically active after leaving school. Students' suggestions for reducing amotivation focused on the enhancement of positive affect, need satisfaction, and structural/organizational changes. The findings are discussed in conjunction with contemporary motivation theories and models of amotivation.