We investigated 2 engagement-fostering aspects of teachers ’ instructional styles—autonomy support and structure—and hypothesized that students ’ engagement would be highest when teachers pro-vided high levels of both. Trained observers rated teachers ’ instructional styles and students’ behavioral engagement in 133 public high school classrooms in the Midwest, and 1,584 students in Grades 9 –11 reported their subjective engagement. Correlational and hierarchical linear modeling analyses showed 3 results: (a) Autonomy support and structure were positively correlated, (b) autonomy support and structure both predicted students ’ behavioral engagement, and (c) only autonomy support was a unique predictor of students ’ self-reported engagement. We discuss, first, how these findings help illuminate the relations between autonomy support and structure as 2 complementary, rather than antagonistic or curvilinear, engagement-fostering aspects of teachers’ instructional styles and, second, the somewhat different results obtained for the behavioral versus self-report measures of students ’ classroom engagement.

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A recurring paradox in the contemporary K-12 classroom is that, although students educa-tionally and developmentally benefit when teachers support their autonomy, teachers are often controlling during instruction. To understand and remedy this paradox, the article pursues three goals. First, the article characterizes the controlling style by defining it, articulating the conditions under which it is most likely to occur, linking it to poor student outcomes, ex-plaining why it undermines these outcomes, identifying its manifest instructional behaviors, and differentiating it from an autonomy-supportive style. Second, the article identifies seven reasons to explain why the controlling style is so prevalent. These reasons show how pressures on teachers from above, from below, and from within can create classroom conditions that make the controlling style both understandable and commonplace. Third, the article offers a remedy to the paradox by articulating how teachers can become more autonomy supportive. Three essential tasks are discussed. Special attention is paid to practical examples of what teachers can do to support students ’ autonomy. Controlling is the interpersonal sentiment and behavior teachers provide during instruction to pressure students to

Abstract Drawing from self-determination theory (SDT), this study examined the effect of an autonomy supportive, well structured and interpersonally involving teaching style on exercise class participants' psychological need satisfaction, motivational regulations, exercise behaviour, behavioural intention and affect. Female exercise class participants enrolled in a 10-week exercise program were exposed to an SDT-based (i.e. SDTc; n ¼ 25) or typical (i.e. control group; n ¼ 31) teaching style. The control condition reported a significant decrease in autonomy support, amotivation and behavioural intention over time. In addition, they reported a significant increase in competence and introjected regulation. Compared to the control condition, the SDTc reported a significantly greater linear increase in structure and interpersonal involvement, relatedness and competence need satisfaction and positive affect. Attendance rates were significantly higher in the SDTc. SDT-based social-contextual characteristics and psychological needs predicted autonomous regulations; all these variables collectively predicted adaptive outcomes. Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Although regular physical activity is conducive to physical and psychological health BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL NEED SATISFACTION AND A MOTIVATIONAL CONTINUUM SDT assumes that all humans possess three basic psychological needs that are fundamental to the nature and quality of engagement in any given domain Amotivation represents 'a state lacking of any intention to engage in a given behaviour SDT posits that satisfaction of the basic psychological needs is central to determining the type of regulation guiding behaviour . Satisfaction of the needs of autonomy and competence is proposed as central to promoting intrinsic motivation. If autonomous forms of extrinsic motivation (i.e. integrated and identified regulation) are to guide behaviour, the needs of autonomy and relatedness must be satisfied. However, when the needs are pitted against one another, or are thwarted, more controlling forms of motivational regulation (i.e. introjected and external regulations) or amotivation ensue FACILITATING PSYCHOLOGICAL NEED SATISFACTION, AUTONOMOUS MOTIVATION AND ADAPTIVE OUTCOMES SDT may be considered a particularly attractive theory for health and exercise professionals attempting to facilitate health behaviour change, as it specifies three socio-contextual variables (i.e. autonomy support, structure and interpersonal involvement) which are held to correspond to variability in psychological need satisfaction, the motivational regulations undergirding behaviour and ensuing motivational outcomes. Autonomy support refers to the provision of choice and meaningful rationale from those in a position of authority, acknowledgment of the perspective of others and minimization of pressure Structure describes the extent to which behaviour-outcome contingencies are made understandable, and whether those in a position of authority make their expectations clear and provide feedback Finally, interpersonal involvement refers to the quality of the relationship between those in a position of authority and the individuals they interact with, and represents the formers' willingness to dedicate psychological resources, such as AIMS AND HYPOTHESES OF THIS STUDY The first objective of the present study was to examine whether an exercise instructor's teaching style can be manipulated so that it is perceived by exercise class participants and independent observers as providing more autonomy support, structure and interpersonal involvement. Autonomy support has been defined as a mode of communication that is context free, and research in the educational domain has shown that teachers can be taught how to be autonomy supportive (e.g. The second objective was to examine the impact of an exercise class taught in accordance with the socio-contextual variables advanced by SDT on the psychological needs, autonomous motivation and related outcomes. Based on empirical and theoretical reviews (e.g. The third objective was to examine the motivational sequence embedded in SDT. Specifically, we hypothesized that autonomy support, structure and interpersonal involvement would predict psychological need satisfaction. In conjunction with the social-contextual variables, psychological need satisfaction was hypothesized to positively predict autonomous regulation, and negatively predict more controlling forms of regulation. Finally, social-contextual characteristics, psychological need satisfaction and autonomous regulations were hypothesized to predict adaptive behavioural, cognitive and affective outcomes. Controlling regulations were expected to result in less desirable consequences. METHOD Participants Participants were female university students and staff who had signed up for one of two exercise classes conducted in the university sports centre (no men signed up for either class). As participants paid for their class, they chose the class in which they participated. One class was randomly designated as the SDTc, whilst the other formed the control condition. Twenty-five females were in the SDTc. These women ranged from 18-53 years of age (M ¼ 21.26, SD ¼ 3.80). The control group included 31 females, who ranged in age from 18-38 years (M ¼ 21.36, SD ¼ 6.71). The two groups did not significantly differ in age (t (54) ¼ .07, p ¼ .94). The majority of participants in the SDTc classified themselves as White (96%; 4% as Chinese). In the control group, 74% of participants classified themselves as White, 19.3% as Asian/Asian British (i.e. Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi or any other Asian background) and 6.5% as Chinese. Chi-square analysis, based upon Fisher's exact probability test (utilized because 50% of cells had expected cell counts less than 5), revealed a significant difference ( p ¼ .03) between the groups in terms of their ethnic/racial composition (i.e. White versus Non-White). Ninety six per cent of participants in the SDTc, and 90% in the control group, were university students. Procedures This study was approved by the ethics subcommittee of a large UK University. Two intermediate level 'cardio combo' (i.e. a mix of boxing choreography and step aerobics) classes constituted the mode of exercise in the current study. Classes were held on a Monday (SDTc) and Wednesday (control) evening, once a week, for 10 weeks. Both classes were run by the same exercise instructor (i.e. a 28 years old White Canadian female, certified by the Canadian Association of Fitness Professionals, with 11 years of teaching experience), in the same venue, throughout the same academic term (i.e. October-December) and at a similar time of the day (i.e. both classes were held in the early evening). As in previous studies of SDT-based interventions in the health care domain (i.e. smoking cessation; Week 1 class constituted a 'taster' session, whereby individuals could try out the exercise class before signing up and paying for the duration of the term. The social-contextual characteristics were not manipulated in this week; the instructor exhibited her typical teaching style. At the end of this first session, the principle investigator informed participants that their class had been selected to take part in a study being conducted at the University. Upon stressing that participation was voluntary, participants were informed that the study aimed to examine personal and psychological characteristics of the exerciser and exercise class leader which can influence the exercise experience. Participants in the SDTc were not informed that the leadership style in their class was manipulated, and in neither class were they told that they would be compared to participants in another class/condition. To act as an incentive, class members were informed that if they agreed to participate and provided all required data, they would be entered into a £50 (approximately $100 US) prize draw. Those participants that decided to sign up to the class for the duration of the term, and who were willing to take part in the study, provided informed consent (observations of the classes suggested that this constituted approximately 70% of the members of each class). They also completed an initial questionnaire packet measuring basic demographic variables, perceived autonomy support, structure and interpersonal involvement provided by the exercise instructor, psychological need satisfaction, motivational regulations, behavioural intention and positive and negative affect (see Measures subsection for details). In addition, two trained, independent observers, blind to the experimental conditions, rated the level of autonomy support, structure and interpersonal involvement provided by the exercise instructor in week 1. Moreover, the independent observers also rated the 'active engagement' demonstrated by participants in each condition (i.e. the behavioural intensity and emotional quality of participants' involvement in the class; The same measures of autonomy support, structure and interpersonal involvement completed during week 1, were also rated by participants in weeks 5 and 9. In addition, during weeks 4 and 8, the same independent observers as those utilized in week 1 rated the autonomy support, structure and interpersonal involvement provided by the exercise class leader, and the amount of 'active engagement' When all measures were collected, participants were debriefed about the purposes of the study and their questions answered. We recognized that it was possible for participants in the two conditions to have known one another, and that they could have discussed their participation or guessed the nature of the study. Thus, the principle investigator also asked participants whether they had discussed their study involvement with participants of other exercise classes or guessed the actual purpose of the study. No participants reported doing so. Measures Socio-contextual Characteristics Exercise class participants' perceptions of autonomy support, structure and interpersonal involvement were assessed using the Perceived Environmental Supportiveness Scale Psychological Need Satisfaction Autonomy, relatedness and competence were measured via the Psychological Need Satisfaction Scale

Recognizing recent criticisms concerning the cross-cultural generalizability of self-determination theory (SDT), the authors tested the SDT view that high school students in collectivistically oriented South Korea benefit from classroom experiences of autonomy support and psychological need satisfaction. In Study 1, experiences of autonomy, competence, and relatedness underlaid Korean students' most satisfying learning experiences, and experiences of low autonomy and low competence underlaid their least satisfying learning experiences. In Study 2, psychological need satisfaction experiences were associated with productive (achievement and engagement) and satisfying (intrinsic motivation and proneness to negative affect) student outcomes. Study 3 replicated and extended Study 2's structural equation modeling findings by showing that the hypothesized model explained students' positive outcomes even after controlling for cultural and parental influences, including the collectivistic value orientation. Study 4 replicated the earlier cross-sectional findings with a semester-long prospective 3-wave design. The authors discuss how the findings support the motivation theory's cross-cultural generalizability.

Grounded in self-determination theory

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This article outlines the development and initial validation of the Controlling Coach Behaviors Scale (CCBS), a multidimensional self-report measure designed to assess sports coaches' controlling interpersonal style from the perspective of self-determination theory

Abstract Objectives: Autonomy support is a component of the motivational climate in youth sport that may promote youth's internalization of behaviors and attitudes. This study examined the psychometric properties of the Autonomy-Supportive Coaching Questionnaire (ASCQ), a measure of two forms of autonomy-supportive coaching perceived by young athletes. Design: The study design was non-experimental. Methods: Over a 6-week season, youth (N ¼ 165) participating in a recreational summer swim league completed measures of perceived coaching behavior (weeks 1 and 5), autonomy-supportive coaching (week 5) and psychological need satisfaction (weeks 1 and 6). Results: Responses to the ASCQ could be reduced to two correlated factors representing an ''interest in athlete's input'' and ''praise for autonomous behavior.'' These factors exhibited slightly different relations with perceived coaching behaviors and positively predicted coaching-associated contrasts in the satisfaction of all three basic psychological needs. Conclusions: The ASCQ appears to provide a valid assessment of young athlete's perceptions of autonomysupportive coaching. Autonomy-supportive coaching should be evaluated as a potential source of motivational consequences of coaching and as a potential moderator of coaching effects on youth internalization. r

Physical education teachers can influence students' self-determination through the motivational strategies that they use. The current study examined how teachers' reported use of three motivational strategies (providing a meaningful rationale, providing instrumental help and support, and gaining an understanding of the students) were predicted by perceived job pressure, perceptions of student selfdetermination, the teachers' autonomous orientation, psychological need satisfaction, and self-determination to teach. Structural equation modeling supported a model in which perceived job pressure, perceptions of student self-determination, and teacher autonomous orientation predicted teacher psychological need satisfaction, which, in turn positively influenced teacher self-determination. The last positively predicted the use of all three strategies. Direct positive effects of teachers' psychological need satisfaction on the strategies of gaining an understanding of students and instrumental help and support were also found. In summary, factors that influence teacher motivation may also indirectly affect their motivational strategies toward students.