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Why teachers adopt a controlling motivating style toward students and how they can become more autonomy supportive. Educational Psychologist, 44, 159-175. doi: 10.1080/00461520903028990
- Psychological Bulletin
, 2009
"... A recurring paradox in the contemporary K-12 classroom is that, although students educa-tionally and developmentally benefit when teachers support their autonomy, teachers are often controlling during instruction. To understand and remedy this paradox, the article pursues three goals. First, the art ..."
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A recurring paradox in the contemporary K-12 classroom is that, although students educa-tionally and developmentally benefit when teachers support their autonomy, teachers are often controlling during instruction. To understand and remedy this paradox, the article pursues three goals. First, the article characterizes the controlling style by defining it, articulating the conditions under which it is most likely to occur, linking it to poor student outcomes, ex-plaining why it undermines these outcomes, identifying its manifest instructional behaviors, and differentiating it from an autonomy-supportive style. Second, the article identifies seven reasons to explain why the controlling style is so prevalent. These reasons show how pressures on teachers from above, from below, and from within can create classroom conditions that make the controlling style both understandable and commonplace. Third, the article offers a remedy to the paradox by articulating how teachers can become more autonomy supportive. Three essential tasks are discussed. Special attention is paid to practical examples of what teachers can do to support students ’ autonomy. Controlling is the interpersonal sentiment and behavior teachers provide during instruction to pressure students to
Examining Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Exercise Goals
- Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Outcomes. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology
, 2009
"... ine the associations between intrinsic (relative to extrinsic) exercise goal content and cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes; and (b) test the mediating role of psy-chological need satisfaction in the Exercise Goal Content ➞ Outcomes relationship. Using a sample of 410 adults, hierarchical ..."
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ine the associations between intrinsic (relative to extrinsic) exercise goal content and cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes; and (b) test the mediating role of psy-chological need satisfaction in the Exercise Goal Content ➞ Outcomes relationship. Using a sample of 410 adults, hierarchical regression analysis showed relative intrinsic goal content to positively predict physical self-worth, self-reported exercise behavior, psychological well-being, and psychological need satisfaction and negatively predict exercise anxiety. Except for exercise behavior, the predictive utility of relative intrin-sic goal content on the dependent variables of interest remained significant after con-trolling for participants ’ relative self-determined exercise motivation. Structural equation modeling analyses showed psychological need satisfaction to partially medi-ate the effect of relative intrinsic goal content on the outcome variables. Our findings support further investigation of exercise goals commensurate with the goal content perspective advanced in SDT.
Is direct instruction the answer to the right question
- Educational Psychologist
, 2007
"... Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) make a general case for the effectiveness of a teaching method—direct instruction—without reference to any context of what it is that is being taught by whom and to whom. In so doing, they bypass what is arguably the most pressing concern facing educators—not how ..."
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Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) make a general case for the effectiveness of a teaching method—direct instruction—without reference to any context of what it is that is being taught by whom and to whom. In so doing, they bypass what is arguably the most pressing concern facing educators—not how to teach students but what to teach them. An argument is made for the need to contemplate instructional methods within the broader context of instructional goals. Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) make a strong case for the efficacy, and hence desirability, of what is currently referred to as “direct instruction, ” over its alternatives, at all age levels. If we want students to learn something, they claim, we will be most successful if we convey it to them in as explicit, direct, and highly scaffolded manner as possible. Kirschner et al.’s position comprises two separable claims—that direct instruction is effective and that other methods are ineffective. Each of these claims, I would main-tain, is debatable, and some experimental evidence exists that fails to support them. In my own research, we have shown that direct instruction does not fare so well when one takes the “long view, ” over time and transfer to new contexts (Dean & Kuhn, in press). On the other hand, well-controlled experi-mental studies have shown that students ’ learning is enhanced when they have identified a question or a problem to address (Capon & Kuhn, 2004; Kuhn & Dean, 2005). Rather than pursue a detailed discussion of this evidence or contrasting evidence supporting Kirschner et al.’s claims, here, instead, I would like to pursue a theme based on what I found most striking about Kirschner et al.’s treatment of their topic—the fact that nowhere in the article do they make any reference to what it is that a teacher might be seeking to teach and students undertaking to learn. Implicit in their presentation is the assumption that their claims about how best to teach and learn are universally applicable, irrespective of what is being taught to whom or why. Correspondence should be addressed to Deanna Kuhn, Box 119,
Development and validation of the Goal Content for Exercise Questionnaire. Manuscript submitted for publication
, 2007
"... tive to extrinsic, goal content is a critical predictor of the quality of an individual’s behavior and psychological well-being. Through three studies, we developed and psychometrically tested a measure of intrinsic and extrinsic goal content in the exercise context: the Goal Content for Exercise Qu ..."
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tive to extrinsic, goal content is a critical predictor of the quality of an individual’s behavior and psychological well-being. Through three studies, we developed and psychometrically tested a measure of intrinsic and extrinsic goal content in the exercise context: the Goal Content for Exercise Questionnaire (GCEQ). In adults, exploratory (N = 354; Study 1) and confirmatory factor analyses (N = 312; Study 2) supported a 20-item solution consisting of 5 lower order factors (i.e., social affiliation, health management, skill development, image and social recognition) that could be subsumed within a 2-factor higher order structure (i.e., intrinsic and extrinsic). Evidence for external validity, temporal stability, gender invariance, and internal consistency of the GCEQ was found. An independent sample (N = 475; Study 3) provided further support for the lower order structure of the GCEQ and some support for the higher order structure. The GCEQ was supported as a measure of exercise-based goal content, which may help understand how intrinsic and extrinsic goals can motivate exercise behavior.
Does Extrinsic Goal Framing Enhance Extrinsic Goal-Oriented Individuals’ Learning and Performance? An Experimental Test of the Match Perspective Versus Self-Determination Theory
"... Previous work within self-determination theory has shown that experimentally framing a learning activity in terms of extrinsic rather than intrinsic goals results in poorer conceptual learning and performance, presumably because extrinsic goal framing detracts attention from the learning activity an ..."
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Previous work within self-determination theory has shown that experimentally framing a learning activity in terms of extrinsic rather than intrinsic goals results in poorer conceptual learning and performance, presumably because extrinsic goal framing detracts attention from the learning activity and is less directly satisfying of basic psychological needs. According to the match perspective, experimental extrinsic, compared to intrinsic, goal framing should enhance learning and performance for learners who personally hold a stronger extrinsic than intrinsic goal orientation, as these learners ’ personally held goals match with the situationally induced goals. An experimental field study among 5th–6th grade children shows that extrinsic goal framing resulted in poorer autonomous motivation, conceptual (but not rote) learning, and persistence compared to intrinsic goal framing, irrespective of participants ’ personal intrinsic versus extrinsic goal orientations and their spontaneous perception of the learning activity as serving an intrinsic or an extrinsic goal. The authors conclude that teachers can best promote intrinsic goals, even when facing students who personally hold a stronger extrinsic than intrinsic goal orientation.
The motivating role of positive feedback in sport and physical education: Evidence for a motivational model
- Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology
, 2008
"... Based on self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), an experimental study with middle school students participating in a physical education task and a cor-relational study with highly talented sport students investigated the motivating role of positive competence feedback on participants ’ w ..."
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Based on self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), an experimental study with middle school students participating in a physical education task and a cor-relational study with highly talented sport students investigated the motivating role of positive competence feedback on participants ’ well-being, performance, and intention to participate. In Study 1, structural equation modeling favored the hypothesized motivational model, in which, after controlling for pretask perceived competence and competence valuation, feedback positively predicted competence satisfaction, which in turn predicted higher levels of vitality and greater intentions to participate, through the mediation of autonomous motivation. No effects on performance were found. Study 2 further showed that autonomous motivation mediated the relation between competence satisfaction and well-being, whereas amotivation mediated the negative relation between competence satisfaction and ill-being and rated performance. The discussion focuses on the motivational role of competence feedback in sports and physical education settings.
Persuasive communication and proenvironmental behaviours: how message tailoring and message framing can improve the integration of behaviours through self-determined motivation
- Canadian Psychology
, 2008
"... Public concern about environmental issues has grown substantially in the last two decades. As a consequence, the promotion of environmentally conscious behaviours that are integrated in people's lifestyle has become an ongoing and important challenge. Persuasive messages are often perceived as ..."
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Public concern about environmental issues has grown substantially in the last two decades. As a consequence, the promotion of environmentally conscious behaviours that are integrated in people's lifestyle has become an ongoing and important challenge. Persuasive messages are often perceived as the first step in efforts to motivate people to change a specific behaviour. In this article, the authors propose that (a) tailoring messages according to proposed processes underlying behaviour change (i.e., being aware of a problem, deciding what to do, initiating, and implementing a behaviour); and (b) framing these messages in terms of whether they serve intrinsic goals (i.e., health, well-being) as opposed to extrinsic goals (i.e., make or save money, comfort) could make messages more effective by progressively increasing the level of self-determined motivation of the targeted population.
How Endogenous Motivations Influence User Intentions: Beyond the Dichotomy of Extrinsic and Intrinsic User Motivations
"... Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh. Dr. Malhotra has taught and lectured as invited ..."
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Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh. Dr. Malhotra has taught and lectured as invited
1 The Effects of Competition on Intrinsic Motivation in Exergames and the Conditional Indirect Effects of Presence
"... Intrinsic motivation has been reported to be one of the strongest determinants of exercise adherence. The role of competition in exergames was studied to determine the ways to increase intrinsic motivation. We tested the competitive exercise setting as a contextual factor, and competitiveness as ind ..."
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Intrinsic motivation has been reported to be one of the strongest determinants of exercise adherence. The role of competition in exergames was studied to determine the ways to increase intrinsic motivation. We tested the competitive exercise setting as a contextual factor, and competitiveness as individual characteristic, to investigate their effect on intrinsic motivation using psychological, behavioral, and physiological measures. The experiment was a 2 (Competition: Competition versus Non-competition condition) x 2 (Individual competitiveness: High versus Low) between-subjects design. The results showed significant interaction effects of independent variables on intrinsic motivation, mood, and evaluation of the exergame. For highly competitive individuals, competition increased intrinsic motivation, but for those who were lowly competitive, exercising in competitive settings had detrimental effects on the exercise experience. We also found significant moderated mediation effect of presence toward exercise experience in the exergame. Keywords--exergame, competition, presence, intrinsic motivation, exercise video game 1.
