Abstract

Evolution and learning are two forms of adaptation that operate on different time scales. Evolution is capable of capturing relatively slow environmental changes that might encompass several generations. Learning, instead, allows an individual to adapt to environmental changes that are unpredictable at the generational level. Moreover, while evolution operates on the genotype, learning affects the phenotype and phenotypic changes cannot directly modify the genotype. Recently, the study of artificial neural networks that are subjected both to an evolutionary and a lifetime learning process received an increasing attention. These studies have been conducted with two different purposes: (a) looking at the advantages, in terms of performance, of combining two different adaptation techniques; (b) understanding the role of the interaction between learning and evolution in natural organisms (for a review see, Nolfi and Floreano, 1999). The general picture that emerge fro

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