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...l with their ambivalence in one way or another. Perhaps the most common approach to dealing with ambivalence is enhanced thinking or information processing (e.g., Abelson et al., 1968; Aronson, 1969; =-=Festinger, 1957-=-; Hass, Katz, Rizzo, Bailey, & Moore, 1992; Heider, 1958; Nordgren, van Harreveld, & van der Pligt 2006). By considering additional information, individuals can hope to gain enough information for one...

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... most common approach to dealing with ambivalence is enhanced thinking or information processing (e.g., Abelson et al., 1968; Aronson, 1969; Festinger, 1957; Hass, Katz, Rizzo, Bailey, & Moore, 1992; =-=Heider, 1958-=-; Nordgren, van Harreveld, & van der Pligt 2006). By considering additional information, individuals can hope to gain enough information for one or the other side of the discrepancy in order to resolv...

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...ion test (IAT) in which stereotypically Black names (e.g., Tyrone, LaToya) and White names (e.g., Andrew, Katie) were paired with good (e.g., freedom, love) and bad (e.g., poison, disease) terms (see =-=Greenwald et al., 1998-=-, for the scoring procedure and rationale). The explicit measure consisted of a series of pro and anti Black statements to which participants were to rate their extent of agreement (see Katz & Hass, 1...

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...anisms such as serving as a peripheral cue or by affecting the number or valence of thoughts generated 50 BRIÑOL AND PETTY D o w n lo ad edsB y:s[ Br iñ ol ,sPa bl o]sA t:s1 2: 03s2 7sMa rc hs20 09 (=-=Petty & Cacioppo, 1986-=-), but by a new mechanism—affecting thought confidence. We provide a comprehensive review of the primary and secondary processes by which source factors affect attitude change, and describe some resea...

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...icting expertise and attractiveness information). The literature has documented that such explicit conflicts are typically experienced as aversive and dysfunctional (e.g., Abelson & Ronsenberg, 1958; =-=Higgins, 1987-=-; Newcomb, 1968; Osgood & Tannenbaum, 1955). As a consequence people attempt to deal with their ambivalence in one way or another. Perhaps the most common approach to dealing with ambivalence is enhan...

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...t selfvalidation is more likely to take place when people have the motivation and ability to attend to and interpret their own cognitive experience (e.g., participants are high in need for cognition; =-=Cacioppo & Petty, 1982-=-; when there is high personal relevance of the persuasion topic; Petty & Cacioppo, 1979). There are at least two reasons for this. First, for validation processes to matter, people need to have some t...

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...ses. Thus, contemporary research has pointed to numerous source variables that can serve as simple cues when motivation and ability to think are relatively low (e.g., Briñol, Petty, & Tormala, 2004, =-=Chaiken, 1980-=-; Petty, Cacioppo, & Goldman, 1981). Furthermore, several specific mechanisms by which these source cues can affect attitudes when thinking is low have been proposed (e.g., classical conditioning, ide...

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...riming where an activated concept (e.g., ‘‘hostile’’) can be applied to whatever the person is thinking about, whether it is the self (e.g., DeMarree, Wheeler, & Petty, 2005) or another person (e.g., =-=Higgins, Rholes, & Jones, 1977-=-). Given that metacognitive confidence can be applied to any cognition, an interesting case to examine would be when source factors influence the confidence (or doubt) that people have in their attitu...

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...ng considered as one of the most fundamental concepts in social science. Although prior research on source power has emphasised its role in producing compliance rather than internalised change (e.g., =-=Kelman, 1958-=-), the self-validation mechanism holds open the possibility of internalised change for powerful sources. In a line of research inspired by the self-validation hypothesis we examined the effect of the ...

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...TY D o w n lo ad edsB y:s[ Br iñ ol ,sPa bl o]sA t:s1 2: 03s2 7sMa rc hs20 09 power of a message source is made salient prior to a message, it should enhance the information processing of recipients (=-=Fiske, 1993-=-). Notably, this prediction implies that powerless message recipients would engage in greater message processing than powerful ones. Indeed we have found precisely this pattern when feelings of recipi...

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...ked participants to generate many (10) or few (2) thoughts in favour of a given proposal (e.g., instituting comprehensive exams for college seniors). Consistent with prior work on ease effects (e.g., =-=Schwarz et al., 1991-=-), participants who were asked to generate only 2 positive thoughts were more favourable towards the proposal than those asked to generate 10 favourable thoughts. Importantly, participants were more c...

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... their finding that individuals high in need for cognition are more responsive to the quality of the arguments in a persuasive message than are individuals low in need for cognition (for reviews, see =-=Cacioppo, Petty, Feinstein, & Jarvis, 1996-=-; Petty et al., in press). In line with the studies described earlier, the current Figure 9. Attitudes of high need for cognition participants as a function of argument quality and confidence. Confide...

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...emporary research has pointed to numerous source variables that can serve as simple cues when motivation and ability to think are relatively low (e.g., Briñol, Petty, & Tormala, 2004, Chaiken, 1980; =-=Petty, Cacioppo, & Goldman, 1981-=-). Furthermore, several specific mechanisms by which these source cues can affect attitudes when thinking is low have been proposed (e.g., classical conditioning, identification with the source, and u...

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... et al. reasoned that if this were true, it should only be Whites low in prejudice who would show the enhanced scrutiny effect. To examine this, prejudice was assessed with several explicit measures (=-=Katz & Hass, 1988-=-; McConahay, Hardee, & Batts, 1981), and reactions to persuasive messages from Black and White sources were assessed. In several studies it was found that only Whites who were low in explicit prejudic...

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...ty to get something they wanted and were in a position to evaluate them (low power). This experimental procedure has been used successfully to manipulate feelings of power in previous research (e.g., =-=Galinsky, Gruenfeld, & Magee, 2003-=-). Following this manipulation, participants’ attitudes towards the proposal were measured. Finally participants were asked to return to the thoughts they listed about the vaccination policy and repor...

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..., Tormala, Briñol, and Petty (2007a) demonstrated that when the validating information (source credibility) preceded the message, it biased the generation of thoughts, consistent with past research (=-=Chaiken & Maheswaran, 1994-=-), but it affected thought confidence when it followed the message. As illustrated in Figure 4, our findings on selfvalidation argue that research on persuasion can benefit from considering the timing...

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...than just one, but also when they perceive the source to be similar to themselves in one way or another. This is presumably because linking a message to a similar source increases its self-relevance (=-=Petty & Cacioppo, 1979-=-). For example, people tend to think more about a persuasive message when it is presented by a source who shares the message recipient’s group membership than when it is delivered by a source who does...

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...has also shown if people believe that their thoughts have been biased by the source, they can adjust their judgements in a direction opposite to the implication of the thoughts (correction processes; =-=Petty, Wegener, & White, 1998-=-; Wegener & Petty, 1995, 1997). Figure 2. Attitudes as a function of argument quality and automatic–deliberative discrepancies regarding the group of the source. Adapted from Petty, Briñol, See, and ...

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...o thinking about thinking. In recent years metacognition has assumed a prominent role not only in the domain of social psychology (Jost et al., 1998: Petty et al., 2007), but also in memory research (=-=Koriat & Goldsmith, 1996-=-), clinical practice (Beck & Greenberg, 1994), and advertising (Friestad & Wright, 1995). Indeed, metacognition has been touted as one of the top 100 topics in psychological research (Nelson, 1992). A...

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...ar role varied with the theory. For example, in the original Hovland (Yale) learning framework, source variables (e.g., trustworthy sources) affected persuasion by increasing learning of the message (=-=Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953-=-). In a second version of Hovland’s theory, however, sources were proposed to serve as simple augmenting/discounting cues (Kelman & Hovland, 1953), which could increase or decrease persuasion independ...

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...eness information). The literature has documented that such explicit conflicts are typically experienced as aversive and dysfunctional (e.g., Abelson & Ronsenberg, 1958; Higgins, 1987; Newcomb, 1968; =-=Osgood & Tannenbaum, 1955-=-). As a consequence people attempt to deal with their ambivalence in one way or another. Perhaps the most common approach to dealing with ambivalence is enhanced thinking or information processing (e....

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... attempt to deal with their ambivalence in one way or another. Perhaps the most common approach to dealing with ambivalence is enhanced thinking or information processing (e.g., Abelson et al., 1968; =-=Aronson, 1969-=-; Festinger, 1957; Hass, Katz, Rizzo, Bailey, & Moore, 1992; Heider, 1958; Nordgren, van Harreveld, & van der Pligt 2006). By considering additional information, individuals can hope to gain enough in...

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...de strength (e.g., Barden & Petty, 2008). That is, to the extent that attitudes are held with confidence they are likely to persist over time, resist change, and influence thinking and behaviour (see =-=Petty & Krosnick, 1995-=-). For example, we have already noted that power induced prior to a message can affect confidence in a person’s initial attitude and thereby reduce the perceived need for information processing. A num...

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...acognition has assumed a prominent role not only in the domain of social psychology (Jost et al., 1998: Petty et al., 2007), but also in memory research (Koriat & Goldsmith, 1996), clinical practice (=-=Beck & Greenberg, 1994-=-), and advertising (Friestad & Wright, 1995). Indeed, metacognition has been touted as one of the top 100 topics in psychological research (Nelson, 1992). According to most metacognitive views (includ...

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...fect the direction of thinking When motivation and ability to think are high, such as when the topic is one of high personal relevance (Petty & Cacioppo, 1979) and there are few distractions present (=-=Petty, Wells, & Brock, 1976-=-), people will be engaged in careful thought about a proposal, but that thinking can be biased by source variables. Most importantly, source variables can motivate or enable people to either support o...

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...y had to roleplay one meeting they might have at work. That is, the role-playing task required one person to be the manager and the other to be the subordinate. Previous research (e.g., Kipnis, 1972; =-=Overbeck & Park, 2001-=-) has demonstrated the effectiveness of this kind of role-playing in inducing high and low power states. Also, in order to fit with the cover story, the person assigned to play the role of the manager...

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... different processes are associated with different consequences (e.g., with high thought attitude change processes leading to greater attitude strength than low thought attitude change processes; see =-=Petty, Haugtvedt, & Smith, 1995-=-) even for the same outcome, it is essential to distinguish among the different processes underlying source persuasion. This aspect is crucial because it shows that the same source variable (e.g., a s...

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...k in which they had to roleplay one meeting they might have at work. That is, the role-playing task required one person to be the manager and the other to be the subordinate. Previous research (e.g., =-=Kipnis, 1972-=-; Overbeck & Park, 2001) has demonstrated the effectiveness of this kind of role-playing in inducing high and low power states. Also, in order to fit with the cover story, the person assigned to play ...

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...at if this were true, it should only be Whites low in prejudice who would show the enhanced scrutiny effect. To examine this, prejudice was assessed with several explicit measures (Katz & Hass, 1988; =-=McConahay, Hardee, & Batts, 1981-=-), and reactions to persuasive messages from Black and White sources were assessed. In several studies it was found that only Whites who were low in explicit prejudice processed messages more for Blac...

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...low elaboration) or by biasing the generation of positive thoughts (for conditions of high elaboration) or by validating those thoughts (for conditions in which people think about their thoughts; see =-=Petty, Schumann, Richman, & Strathman, 1993-=-). Although those effects might seem similar on the surface, the underlying mechanism that produces them is different, leading to differences in the strength of the judgements formed. Importantly, we ...

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...), the heuristic-systematic model (HSM; Chaiken, Liberman, SOURCE FACTORS IN PERSUASION 51 D o w n lo ad edsB y:s[ Br iñ ol ,sPa bl o]sA t:s1 2: 03s2 7sMa rc hs20 09 & Eagly, 1989), and the unimodel (=-=Kruglanski & Thompson, 1999-=-) were generated to articulate multiple ways in which source (and other) variables could affect attitudes in different situations. For example, the ELM holds that there are a finite set of persuasion ...

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...re, because the ease effect is presumed to be mediated by use of a heuristic, the ease effect is argued to be more likely when people are not thinking very much (e.g., for a low-importance topic; see =-=Rothman & Schwarz, 1998-=-). In contrast, the is a goal that motivates people to seek and pursue self-esteem. This use of the term selfvalidation is similar to the meaning of that exact term within clinical psychology where se...

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...s a consequence people attempt to deal with their ambivalence in one way or another. Perhaps the most common approach to dealing with ambivalence is enhanced thinking or information processing (e.g., =-=Abelson et al., 1968-=-; Aronson, 1969; Festinger, 1957; Hass, Katz, Rizzo, Bailey, & Moore, 1992; Heider, 1958; Nordgren, van Harreveld, & van der Pligt 2006). By considering additional information, individuals can hope to...

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...nk more about a persuasive message when it is presented by a source who shares the message recipient’s group membership than when it is delivered by a source who does not share this membership (e.g., =-=Mackie, Worth, & Asuncion, 1990-=-). This increase in message elaboration as a function of similarity based on belonging to the same group is more likely to occur when the topic of the message is group-related (Mackie, GastardoConaco,...

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...suasion by increasing learning of the message (Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953). In a second version of Hovland’s theory, however, sources were proposed to serve as simple augmenting/discounting cues (=-=Kelman & Hovland, 1953-=-), which could increase or decrease persuasion independent of argument learning. In yet another account of source variables proposed by Kelman (1958) some source variables (expert sources) induced per...

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... Goldsmith, 1996), clinical practice (Beck & Greenberg, 1994), and advertising (Friestad & Wright, 1995). Indeed, metacognition has been touted as one of the top 100 topics in psychological research (=-=Nelson, 1992-=-). According to most metacognitive views (including self-validation), secondary metacognitive processes are consequential in guiding further thinking, judgement, and action. For example, other researc...

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...ASION 85 D o w n lo ad edsB y:s[ Br iñ ol ,sPa bl o]sA t:s1 2: 03s2 7sMa rc hs20 09 there is a very long tradition in the study of attitude change involving selfpersuasion through role-playing (e.g., =-=Janis & King, 1954-=-). In a recent line of research, Briñol, Petty, and Gasco (2008) compared the self as a source to another person as the source. In one of the studies participants were first asked to generate positiv...

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...t, Kruglanski & Nelson, 1998). In other words, metacognition refers to thinking about thinking. In recent years metacognition has assumed a prominent role not only in the domain of social psychology (=-=Jost et al., 1998-=-: Petty et al., 2007), but also in memory research (Koriat & Goldsmith, 1996), clinical practice (Beck & Greenberg, 1994), and advertising (Friestad & Wright, 1995). Indeed, metacognition has been tou...

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...ne or the other side of the discrepancy in order to resolve or minimise the inconsistency, or at least the subjective discomfort that results from it (e.g., Hänze, 2001; Hodson, Maio, & Esses, 2001; =-=Jonas, Diehl, & Bromer, 1997-=-). For example, Maio, Bell, and Esses (1996) measured participants’ attitudinal ambivalence regarding immigration to Canada, and then exposed them to a discrepancy-relevant message favouring immigrati...

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...and Harnish (1988) found that individuals low in self-monitoring (Snyder, 1974) processed messages to a greater extent when they were presented by an expert rather than an attractive source (see also =-=Petty & Cacioppo, 1983-=-; Puckett, Petty, Cacioppo, & Fisher, 1983). High self-monitors did the opposite. This is because source factors can be associated with the type of information of most interest to high and low self-mo...

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...t only in the domain of social psychology (Jost et al., 1998: Petty et al., 2007), but also in memory research (Koriat & Goldsmith, 1996), clinical practice (Beck & Greenberg, 1994), and advertising (=-=Friestad & Wright, 1995-=-). Indeed, metacognition has been touted as one of the top 100 topics in psychological research (Nelson, 1992). According to most metacognitive views (including self-validation), secondary metacogniti...

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... Our reasoning is similar to the argument made in work on priming where an activated concept (e.g., ‘‘hostile’’) can be applied to whatever the person is thinking about, whether it is the self (e.g., =-=DeMarree, Wheeler, & Petty, 2005-=-) or another person (e.g., Higgins, Rholes, & Jones, 1977). Given that metacognitive confidence can be applied to any cognition, an interesting case to examine would be when source factors influence t...

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...e and attractiveness information). The literature has documented that such explicit conflicts are typically experienced as aversive and dysfunctional (e.g., Abelson & Ronsenberg, 1958; Higgins, 1987; =-=Newcomb, 1968-=-; Osgood & Tannenbaum, 1955). As a consequence people attempt to deal with their ambivalence in one way or another. Perhaps the most common approach to dealing with ambivalence is enhanced thinking or...

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..., it is unlikely to affect processing. Another possibility is that reduced persuasion might emerge because weak arguments violate people’s expectancies for expert sources, leading to less persuasion (=-=Bohner, Ruder, & Erb, 2002-=-). If the mechanism is one of expectancy violation, then participants would be more likely to generate negative thoughts in that condition, which we did not find to be the case. Alternatively, one mig...

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...valence in one way or another. Perhaps the most common approach to dealing with ambivalence is enhanced thinking or information processing (e.g., Abelson et al., 1968; Aronson, 1969; Festinger, 1957; =-=Hass, Katz, Rizzo, Bailey, & Moore, 1992-=-; Heider, 1958; Nordgren, van Harreveld, & van der Pligt 2006). By considering additional information, individuals can hope to gain enough information for one or the other side of the discrepancy in o...

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...erical majorities often exerts greater influence than do numerical minorities (e.g., Wood, Lundgren, Quellette, Busceme, & Blackstone, 1994) although sometimes minorities can be more effective, e.g., =-=Crano & Chen, 1998-=-; Moscovici, 1980; Mugny & Perez, 1991). Several traditional mechanisms have been shown for minority sources. Thus, endorsement of an issue by a numerical minority (vs majority) has led to resistance ...

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...onfidence directly (even in the absence of changes in attitudes). Affecting attitude confidence is important because confidence is generally understood as a core component of attitude strength (e.g., =-=Barden & Petty, 2008-=-). That is, to the extent that attitudes are held with confidence they are likely to persist over time, resist change, and influence thinking and behaviour (see Petty & Krosnick, 1995). For example, w...

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...r influence than do numerical minorities (e.g., Wood, Lundgren, Quellette, Busceme, & Blackstone, 1994) although sometimes minorities can be more effective, e.g., Crano & Chen, 1998; Moscovici, 1980; =-=Mugny & Perez, 1991-=-). Several traditional mechanisms have been shown for minority sources. Thus, endorsement of an issue by a numerical minority (vs majority) has led to resistance to attitude change by a low-effort rej...

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...ten exerts greater influence than do numerical minorities (e.g., Wood, Lundgren, Quellette, Busceme, & Blackstone, 1994) although sometimes minorities can be more effective, e.g., Crano & Chen, 1998; =-=Moscovici, 1980-=-; Mugny & Perez, 1991). Several traditional mechanisms have been shown for minority sources. Thus, endorsement of an issue by a numerical minority (vs majority) has led to resistance to attitude chang...

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...with other source factors, social identity can also influence persuasion by other, different processes under other circumstances (for an extensive review of social identity and persuasion, see, e.g., =-=Fleming & Petty, 2000-=-).2 In addition to affecting the perceived self-relevance of a message, message sources can sometimes induce a general sense of certainty or doubt. In general people will think more about messages fro...

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...that when a person is not normally motivated to think about the message arguments, more thinking can be provoked by having the individual arguments presented by multiple sources rather than just one (=-=Harkins & Petty, 1981-=-). When the arguments are strong, having multiple sources thereby increases persuasion, but when the arguments are weak, having multiple sources present the arguments reduces persuasion. It is also im...

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...gain enough information for one or the other side of the discrepancy in order to resolve or minimise the inconsistency, or at least the subjective discomfort that results from it (e.g., Hänze, 2001; =-=Hodson, Maio, & Esses, 2001-=-; Jonas, Diehl, & Bromer, 1997). For example, Maio, Bell, and Esses (1996) measured participants’ attitudinal ambivalence regarding immigration to Canada, and then exposed them to a discrepancy-releva...

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... not constrained by other variables to be high or low, minorities can influence attitude change by influencing the amount of thinking (e.g., Baker & Petty, 1994; for a review of these mechanisms, see =-=Martin & Hewstone, 2008-=-; Tormala, Petty, & DeSensi, in press). We have recently conducted a line of research in which we proposed that minorities can affect persuasion not only by serving as cues or affecting the direction ...

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... the NC scale. As anticipated by Festinger’s (1950) notion of consensual validation, this study found that social consensus information affected persuasion by influencing thought confidence (see also =-=Orive, 1988-=-a, 1988b; Stroebe & Diehl, 1988). People reported more confidence in their thoughts when these 78 BRIÑOL AND PETTY D o w n lo ad edsB y:s[ Br iñ ol ,sPa bl o]sA t:s1 2: 03s2 7sMa rc hs20 09 thoughts ...

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...out persuasion also tended to focus on just one process by which sources would have their impact (e.g., increased credibility increasing persuasion by enhancing learning of the message arguments; see =-=Petty, 1997-=-). Although the main-effect and single process assumptions provided a reasonable early start to the field, it was not long before complications arose (see Petty & Briñol, 2008). First, source credibi...

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... that individuals low in self-monitoring (Snyder, 1974) processed messages to a greater extent when they were presented by an expert rather than an attractive source (see also Petty & Cacioppo, 1983; =-=Puckett, Petty, Cacioppo, & Fisher, 1983-=-). High self-monitors did the opposite. This is because source factors can be associated with the type of information of most interest to high and low self-monitors respectively (i.e., 54 BRIÑOL AND ...

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... addition to other information from the message, recipient, context, and internally generated information) as possible arguments or reasons for favouring or disfavouring the attitude object (see also =-=Kruglanski et al., 2005-=-). For example, source attractiveness has been found to influence persuasion by serving as an argument when it related to the central merits of the proposal (e.g., public image of a restaurant, beauty...

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...he key finding is that cognitions that come to mind easily are more impactful than those that are difficult to access. In a separate line of work, Clore and colleagues (Clore, Gaspar, & Garvin, 2001; =-=Clore & Huntsinger, 2007-=-) have focused on emotions, and have proposed that cognitions accompanied by positive emotions are more likely to be used than cognitions accompanied by negative emotions because of the promotive natu...

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...This enhanced scrutiny of Black sources by lowprejudiced individuals was replicated when the message was about a Black versus a White target individual rather than from a Black versus a White source (=-=Fleming, Petty, & White, 2005-=-; see alsoLivingston & Sinclair, 2008). In a recent series of studies we tested a variation of the watchdog hypothesis based on the idea of implicit ambivalence (see Petty & Briñol, 2009). Specifical...

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... the NC scale. As anticipated by Festinger’s (1950) notion of consensual validation, this study found that social consensus information affected persuasion by influencing thought confidence (see also =-=Orive, 1988-=-a, 1988b; Stroebe & Diehl, 1988). People reported more confidence in their thoughts when these 78 BRIÑOL AND PETTY D o w n lo ad edsB y:s[ Br iñ ol ,sPa bl o]sA t:s1 2: 03s2 7sMa rc hs20 09 thoughts ...

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... by lowprejudiced individuals was replicated when the message was about a Black versus a White target individual rather than from a Black versus a White source (Fleming, Petty, & White, 2005; see also=-=Livingston & Sinclair, 2008-=-). In a recent series of studies we tested a variation of the watchdog hypothesis based on the idea of implicit ambivalence (see Petty & Briñol, 2009). Specifically, our conceptualisation of implicit...

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...nder high thinking conditions. However, when elaboration is not constrained by other variables to be high or low, minorities can influence attitude change by influencing the amount of thinking (e.g., =-=Baker & Petty, 1994-=-; for a review of these mechanisms, see Martin & Hewstone, 2008; Tormala, Petty, & DeSensi, in press). We have recently conducted a line of research in which we proposed that minorities can affect per...

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... on behavioural mimicry—where recipients match a source’s behaviour. Numerous studies have now documented that others’ behaviour can function as a prime to automatically activate our behaviour (e.g., =-=Chartrand & Bargh, 1999-=-). Thus the behaviour of the source can prime similar behaviours in the recipient.6 The behaviour generated by the recipient in response to the behaviour of the source, like any other variable describ...