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...s. Current estimates suggest that approximately 16% of people in the United States suffer from MDD at some point during their lives, with women diagnosed with depression almost twice as often as men (=-=Kessler et al., 2003-=-). Also of great concern is the fact that depression is frequently recurrent and cyclical, or sometimes chronic. Depression is ranked as the fifth leading cause of disability among all diseases worldw...

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...and depression proliferated (Monroe, 2008). Critics soon contended that associations between stress and depression were attributable to poor research design or to faulty stress-measurement practices (=-=Brown & Harris, 1978-=-). For instance, early measures employing self-report life-event checklists commonly confounded life events with the actual symptoms of depression (e.g., major changes in eating or sleeping habits) or...

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...ed person’s inability to function socially or professionally). Also, depression can have an insidious onset, with symptoms preceding and even contributing to the generation of subsequent life stress (=-=Hammen, 2005-=-). Further, it is now recognized that respondents often interpret and respond to self-report checklist items idiosyncratically (Dohrenwend, 2006). Life events endorsed by subjects with selfreport chec...

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... those exposed to severe life events subsequently develop depression (although the proportion can be higher, depending upon the nature of the life event and other circumstances; Brown & Harris, 1989; =-=Kendler, Hettema, Butera, Gardner, & Prescott, 2003-=-). This indicates that other factors influence the depressogenic potential of life stress (Brown&Harris, 1978). For example, childhood abuse and early trauma have been associated with heightened risk ...

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...). Although severe life events have commonly been found to precede the onset of a first lifetime episode of depression, severe life events are less often found to precede recurrences of the disorder (=-=Monroe & Harkness, 2005-=-). In other words, major life events may initiate one’s first depressive episode, but ‘‘sadness without cause’’ may characterize subsequent recurrences. Current psychobiological theory posits that MDD...

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...n contributing to the generation of subsequent life stress (Hammen, 2005). Further, it is now recognized that respondents often interpret and respond to self-report checklist items idiosyncratically (=-=Dohrenwend, 2006-=-). Life events endorsed by subjects with selfreport checklists match the nature of the event as intended by the investigator less than 50% of the time (Monroe, 2008). When compared with interview-base...

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...p.sagepub.comDownloaded fromsidea that stress causally precedes depression but also demonstrated the causal relevance of independent life events that are beyond an individual’s control (Hammen, 2005; =-=Mazure, 1998-=-). Based on these state-of-the-art life-stress measurement practices and sound research designs, it is now generally accepted that most people who develop major depression do so following major (but n...

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...y disorders through coronary heart disease and the common cold— reflects the underlying premise that even a ‘‘normal’’ body or mind will eventually succumb to excessive life stress (Dohrenwend, 1999; =-=Monroe, 2008-=-). Yet ideas involving stress have also been invoked mistakenly to account for symptoms of psychopathology and disease in the absence of viable biological or psychological explanations. For example, p...

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...rview-based procedures, respondents commonly provide discordant information on these self-report measures, highlighting the advantage of more careful assessment and operationalization of life stress (=-=McQuaid, Monroe, Roberts, Kupfer, & Frank, 2000-=-). By utilizing these rigorous interview-based methods, research has not only supported the BOX 1 DSM-IV TR Criteria for Major Depressive Episode (APA, 2000) A. Aminimum of five symptoms from the foll...

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...e.g., reactive depression) and stress-unrelated forms of depression (e.g., endogenous depression) have been numerous over many decades, producing extensive and often contentious debate (Hammen, 2005; =-=Monroe et al., 2009-=-). To date, there has been no resolution of the issue. Consequently, current diagnostic practices for MDD do not systematically evaluate the presence or absence of major life stress (e.g., APA, 2000)....

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...ses to acute life stress and adjustment disorders have commonly resulted in improper diagnoses of MDD in clinical populations (i.e., the ‘‘false positive’’ problem with diagnoses of major depression; =-=Horwitz & Wakefield, 2007-=-). Moreover, since mental health researchers have begun to evaluate depression in nonclinical and community samples, concerns about possible false-positive diagnoses of MDD may be especially relevant ...

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...nt and cyclical, or sometimes chronic. Depression is ranked as the fifth leading cause of disability among all diseases worldwide and is projected to become the second leading cause by the year 2020 (=-=Michaud, Murray, & Bloom, 2001-=-). Although highly prevalent inmodern society, the disorder Address correspondence to Scott M. Monroe, Department of Psychology, 118 Haggar Hall, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556; e-mail...

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...imately one in five of those exposed to severe life events subsequently develop depression (although the proportion can be higher, depending upon the nature of the life event and other circumstances; =-=Brown & Harris, 1989-=-; Kendler, Hettema, Butera, Gardner, & Prescott, 2003). This indicates that other factors influence the depressogenic potential of life stress (Brown&Harris, 1978). For example, childhood abuse and ea...

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...ression and anxiety disorders through coronary heart disease and the common cold— reflects the underlying premise that even a ‘‘normal’’ body or mind will eventually succumb to excessive life stress (=-=Dohrenwend, 1999-=-; Monroe, 2008). Yet ideas involving stress have also been invoked mistakenly to account for symptoms of psychopathology and disease in the absence of viable biological or psychological explanations. ...

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...d practices (Monroe, 2008). Current research on major depression still struggles with this question of when life stress is a useful explanatory construct as opposed to a misguided explanatory reflex (=-=Monroe & Reid, 2008-=-).When does the stress of life suggest a cause of depression, and when does it erroneously divert attention from other valid causal factors? By distinguishing the multiple roles life stress may play, ...

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...er 16, 2016cdp.sagepub.comDownloaded fromsrepresents one of the most venerable of psychiatric conditions, with clear clinical descriptions dating back to ancient religious texts and medical writings (=-=Jackson, 1986-=-). Currently, the diagnosis of MDD is based upon the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) of the American Psychiatric Association (APA, 2000) and requires clinical evaluation ...

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...commonly ascribed to the ‘‘demands of civilization on physical and mental powers,’’ including ‘‘overwork,’’ ‘‘overstudy,’’ ‘‘competition,’’ and the ‘‘feverish pursuit of wealth and social position’’ (=-=Kellogg, 1897-=-). Although potentially useful, an overly flexible conceptualization of ‘‘stress’’ can opportunistically fill an explanatory vacuum and can serve as a self-contained, culturally legitimized account fo...