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...sychopaths are insensitive to the idea of retribution (Aharoni et al. 2007).sThis also connects to past findings indicating that retributive attitudes often foster cooperativesand prosocial behavior (=-=Boyd & Richerson, 1992-=-; Fowler, 2005; Kurzban et al., 2007),stendencies which psychopaths do not exhibit.sSecond, psychopaths are impaired in moral judgment. Research has illustrated that adultspsychopaths have functional ...

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... of emotion processing, including empathy and conditioned fear acquisition andsextinction (LaBar, Gatenby, Gore, LeDoux, & Phelps, 1998). Lesions to the amygdala impairsvisual recognition of emotion (=-=Adolphs, Tranel, Damasio, & Damasio, 1994-=-), auditorysrecognition of fear and anger (Scott et al., 1997), and in animals, has been shown to disruptsinhibitory avoidance learning (Bermudez-Rattoni & McGaugh, 1991) and conditioned fears(Hitchco...

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...several reasons (Aharoni et al., 2007; Morse, 2008).sFirst, it has been thought that psychopaths are less able to associate their actions withsrelated punishment and are less sensitive to punishment (=-=Fowles, 1980-=-; Lykken, 1995). Assshown above, research has demonstrated that psychopaths have structural and functionalsimpairments to the prefrontal cortex, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and thesa...

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...neurological correlates of psychopathy. It is an important paralimbic structure that is consideredsthe center of emotion processing, including empathy and conditioned fear acquisition andsextinction (=-=LaBar, Gatenby, Gore, LeDoux, & Phelps, 1998-=-). Lesions to the amygdala impairsvisual recognition of emotion (Adolphs, Tranel, Damasio, & Damasio, 1994), auditorysrecognition of fear and anger (Scott et al., 1997), and in animals, has been shown...

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...s (Aharoni et al., 2007; Morse, 2008).sFirst, it has been thought that psychopaths are less able to associate their actions withsrelated punishment and are less sensitive to punishment (Fowles, 1980; =-=Lykken, 1995-=-). Assshown above, research has demonstrated that psychopaths have structural and functionalsimpairments to the prefrontal cortex, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and thesamygdala, both ...

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...las, 2005), manage early release (Porter,sBrinke, & Wilson, 2009), and recidivate (e.g. Hart, Kropp, & Hare, 1988; Porter, Birt, & Boer,s2001; Kiehl & Hoffman, 2010; Richards, Casey, & Lucente, 2003; =-=Cornell et al., 1996-=-; Harris,sRice, & Cormier, 1991). Psychopathy is argued not to be culture specific—psychopaths aresclaimed to be found in countries all around the world (De Oliveira-Souza, Moll, Ignacio, & Hare,s2008...

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...ocial cooperation (Rilling et al., 2007). Assexpected, studies have also found the amygdala to be hypoactive in response to fearful faces ors7sother affect-related activity (e.g. Carre, et al., 2013, =-=Kiehl et al., 2001-=-). Nevertheless, Muller etsal. (2003) found that psychopaths had increased activation in the amygdala (in addition tosincreased prefrontal activation) when viewing negative content (e.g. pictures of t...

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...generally dovetail with structural imaging findings insobserving reduced amygdala activation in psychopaths. The amygdala of psychopaths have hassbeen found to be hypoactive during fear conditioning (=-=Birbaumer et al., 2005-=-), moral decisionmaking (Glenn, Raine, & Schug, 2009), and social cooperation (Rilling et al., 2007). Assexpected, studies have also found the amygdala to be hypoactive in response to fearful faces or...

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...t the possible efficacy of adultspsychopathy treatment interventions, by and large there is limited evidence that current treatmentsinterventions for adult psychopathy are successful (Cleckley, 1988; =-=Hare, 2003-=-; Harris & Rice,s2006), and some have argued that some interventions can potentially exacerbate psychopathicstendencies (Harris & Rice, 2006). Yet, researchers believe brain research on psychopathy ma...

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...r empathy-inducing stimuli in psychopathic-like children andsadolescents.sImpaired empathy and/or facial expression recognition are both risk factors forsantisocial behavior (Shirtcliff et al., 2009; =-=Blair, 2003-=-) and also bear on the core features ofscallous-unemotional traits. What has not been addressed in the literature is whether amygdalas13sunder-responsivity predisposes to callous-unemotional traits, o...

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...o, 1994), auditorysrecognition of fear and anger (Scott et al., 1997), and in animals, has been shown to disruptsinhibitory avoidance learning (Bermudez-Rattoni & McGaugh, 1991) and conditioned fears(=-=Hitchcock & Davis, 1986-=-). In psychopaths, symptoms such as lack of empathy, blunted affect,sand lack of fear are directly related to impaired emotion processing, and by implication thesamygdala. Studies have hypothesized th...

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... full participation,snor the evaluation of affect.sFrontal Abnormalities in Adult PsychopathssThe prefrontal cortex (PFC) is a major area implicated in antisocial and/or psychopathicsindividuals (see =-=Blair, 2007-=-). Responsible for a wide range of functions, it is perhaps best knownsas the center of “executive functioning”, functions which include behavioral flexibility, learning,ssustained attention, and work...

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...etiology of psychopathy is an ongoing process, but increasingly insrecent years, attention has turned towards its development by looking at the children who mays11sgrow up to become psychopaths (e.g. =-=Barry et al. 2000-=-). Children and adolescents withsdisruptive behavioral disorders (DBD), such as conduct disorder (CU) or oppositional defiancesdisorder (ODD) have been a population of interest as possible “psychopath...

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...ve to the idea of retribution (Aharoni et al. 2007).sThis also connects to past findings indicating that retributive attitudes often foster cooperativesand prosocial behavior (Boyd & Richerson, 1992; =-=Fowler, 2005-=-; Kurzban et al., 2007),stendencies which psychopaths do not exhibit.sSecond, psychopaths are impaired in moral judgment. Research has illustrated that adultspsychopaths have functional and structural...

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... evidence (Yang, Wong, & Coid,s2010). Thus, as current tools are seen as imperfect predictive measures for offending,sconsidering neural deficits related to psychopathy as risk factors for offending (=-=Kiehl, 2006-=-;sGlenn & Raine, 2009), could be helpful additional evidence for the criminal justice system andscourts to utilize, along with existing tools, in order to more effectively assess and make decisionssre...

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...2009; Edens & Cahill, 2007; Stockdale, Olver, & Wong, 2010; Gretton et al., 2004)sand many individuals who exhibit psychopathic tendencies as children do not exhibit theses31stendencies in adulthood (=-=Lynam, Caspi, Moffitt, Loeber, & Stouthamer-Loeber, 2007-=-; Skeem etsal., 2011).sAlthough there is little consensus on how juvenile psychopathy may anticipatespsychopathic behavior and offending after the age of 18, both sides of the literature havesimplicat...

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...ments of pro-criminal attitudes, social supports for crime, antisocial personality patterns,ssubstance abuse, family and marital relationships, and involvement in social, work, and schoolsactivities (=-=Bonta & Andrews, 2007-=-). Overall, researchers believe that current research on thesneural abnormalities of psychopathy is at too early a stage for judges and other members of thescriminal justice system to effectively or p...

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...oral inhibition, and planning for the future. Lesion studies from neurologysstrengthen the hypothesis that structural damage to the ventral prefrontal cortex leads to acquiredssymptoms of sociopathy (=-=Barrash, Tranel, & Anderson, 2000-=-; Bechara, Tranel, & Damasio,s2000; Young et al., 2010), which in turn suggests that the correlation between psychopathy andsprefrontal cortex impairments found in brain imaging studies is consistent ...

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...psychopaths.sAdolescents with conduct problems and callous-unemotional traits show less amygdalas12sresponsiveness to fearful faces (but not other emotional expressions) compared to healthyscontrols (=-=Marsh et al., 2008-=-; Jones, Laurens, Herba, Barker, & Viding, 2009; White et al. 2012;sLozier, Cardinale, VanMeter, & Marsh, 2014) and compared to children with conduct problemssbut low callous-unemotional traits (Vidin...

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... of juvenile psychopathy have been largelysineffective in predicting adult psychopathic offending (Cauffman, Kimonis, Dmitrieva, &sMonahan, 2009; Edens & Cahill, 2007; Stockdale, Olver, & Wong, 2010; =-=Gretton et al., 2004-=-)sand many individuals who exhibit psychopathic tendencies as children do not exhibit theses31stendencies in adulthood (Lynam, Caspi, Moffitt, Loeber, & Stouthamer-Loeber, 2007; Skeem etsal., 2011).sA...

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...ings insobserving reduced amygdala activation in psychopaths. The amygdala of psychopaths have hassbeen found to be hypoactive during fear conditioning (Birbaumer et al., 2005), moral decisionmaking (=-=Glenn, Raine, & Schug, 2009-=-), and social cooperation (Rilling et al., 2007). Assexpected, studies have also found the amygdala to be hypoactive in response to fearful faces ors7sother affect-related activity (e.g. Carre, et al....

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... & Raine, 2009; Canavero, 2014; Maibom, 2014) and recentsinitial studies on transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) appears to affect risk-taking,smoral decision-making, and feelings of guilt (=-=Fecteau et al., 2007-=-a; Fecteau et al., 2007b; Boggioset al., 2010; Karim et al., 2010). Based on initial research (Ruff, Ugazio, & Fehr, 2013) showingsthat right lateral prefrontal stimulation using tDCS enhanced complia...

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... discussion about the possible efficacy of adultspsychopathy treatment interventions, by and large there is limited evidence that current treatmentsinterventions for adult psychopathy are successful (=-=Cleckley, 1988-=-; Hare, 2003; Harris & Rice,s2006), and some have argued that some interventions can potentially exacerbate psychopathicstendencies (Harris & Rice, 2006). Yet, researchers believe brain research on ps...

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...nt crime (Carre, Hyde, Neumann, Viding, & Hariri, 2013), actsout while incarcerated (Guy, Edens, Anthony, & Douglas, 2005), manage early release (Porter,sBrinke, & Wilson, 2009), and recidivate (e.g. =-=Hart, Kropp, & Hare, 1988-=-; Porter, Birt, & Boer,s2001; Kiehl & Hoffman, 2010; Richards, Casey, & Lucente, 2003; Cornell et al., 1996; Harris,sRice, & Cormier, 1991). Psychopathy is argued not to be culture specific—psychopath...

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...ents with conduct problems and callous-unemotional traits show less amygdalas12sresponsiveness to fearful faces (but not other emotional expressions) compared to healthyscontrols (Marsh et al., 2008; =-=Jones, Laurens, Herba, Barker, & Viding, 2009-=-; White et al. 2012;sLozier, Cardinale, VanMeter, & Marsh, 2014) and compared to children with conduct problemssbut low callous-unemotional traits (Viding et al., 2012). Several studies have used othe...

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...s to estimate the risk of future offending, areswidely used in the criminal justice system, but the overall predictive accuracy of these actuarialsrisk assessment instruments has been widely debated (=-=Hart, Michie, & Cooke, 2007-=-; Yang,sWong, & Coid, 2010; Fazel et al., 2012). Generally across instruments, it has often been reportedsthat the positive predictive value of these instruments is no better than chance (Hart, Michie...

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...aths, as suggested by this review, many have reported that the deficits and behaviors ofsjuvenile psychopathy should be considered a developmental antecedent to adult psychopathys(Barry et al., 2000; =-=Lynam et al., 2005-=-; Lynam et al., 2007; Frick, 2009). On the other side, manysrecent studies have concluded that assessments of juvenile psychopathy have been largelysineffective in predicting adult psychopathic offend...

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...t the presence and assessment of psychopathic tendencies in juveniles has been shown to beseffective in short-term prediction of offending and recidivism at age 18 or younger (Edens &sCampbell, 2007; =-=Edens, Campbell, & Weir, 2007-=-; Stockdale, Olver, & Wang, 2010; Asscher ets32sal., 2011). Asscher et al., (2011) argues that recidivism for juvenile psychopathic offendingsbefore the age of 19 can be predicted at around age 10 to ...

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...used in the criminal justice system, but the overall predictive accuracy of these actuarialsrisk assessment instruments has been widely debated (Hart, Michie, & Cooke, 2007; Yang,sWong, & Coid, 2010; =-=Fazel et al., 2012-=-). Generally across instruments, it has often been reportedsthat the positive predictive value of these instruments is no better than chance (Hart, Michie, &sCooke, 2007; Fazel et al., 2012). Neverthe...

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... & Raine, 2009; Canavero, 2014; Maibom, 2014) and recentsinitial studies on transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) appears to affect risk-taking,smoral decision-making, and feelings of guilt (=-=Fecteau et al., 2007-=-a; Fecteau et al., 2007b; Boggioset al., 2010; Karim et al., 2010). Based on initial research (Ruff, Ugazio, & Fehr, 2013) showingsthat right lateral prefrontal stimulation using tDCS enhanced complia...

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...re significantly more likely to make contact with the criminal justice system (Kiehls& Hoffman, 2010), commit violent crime (Carre, Hyde, Neumann, Viding, & Hariri, 2013), actsout while incarcerated (=-=Guy, Edens, Anthony, & Douglas, 2005-=-), manage early release (Porter,sBrinke, & Wilson, 2009), and recidivate (e.g. Hart, Kropp, & Hare, 1988; Porter, Birt, & Boer,s2001; Kiehl & Hoffman, 2010; Richards, Casey, & Lucente, 2003; Cornell e...

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...e age of 18.sOn one side, some research has argued that the neural deficits and behaviors of juvenilespsychopaths are stable, long-term factors that lead to adult psychopathic behavior and offendings(=-=Loney et al., 2007-=-; Pardini et al., 2014; Anderson & Kiehl, 2014). Since juvenile psychopathssshare many of the same neural deficits and personality characteristics documented in adultspsychopaths, as suggested by this...

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...cognition of emotion (Adolphs, Tranel, Damasio, & Damasio, 1994), auditorysrecognition of fear and anger (Scott et al., 1997), and in animals, has been shown to disruptsinhibitory avoidance learning (=-=Bermudez-Rattoni & McGaugh, 1991-=-) and conditioned fears(Hitchcock & Davis, 1986). In psychopaths, symptoms such as lack of empathy, blunted affect,sand lack of fear are directly related to impaired emotion processing, and by implica...

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...e abnormalities develop couldsin theory better inform treatment, and could change current juvenile adjudication processes.sThere is a fairly large body of neural imaging research on CD children (e.g. =-=Huebner et al., 2008-=-,sFairchild et al., 2013), but much fewer on the subset of DBD children with CU traits. In thescontext of the review below, it must be borne in mind that this is a recent and developing field,sand as ...

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...udies on transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) appears to affect risk-taking,smoral decision-making, and feelings of guilt (Fecteau et al., 2007a; Fecteau et al., 2007b; Boggioset al., 2010; =-=Karim et al., 2010-=-). Based on initial research (Ruff, Ugazio, & Fehr, 2013) showingsthat right lateral prefrontal stimulation using tDCS enhanced compliance to social normssenforced by punishment (an analogue to law-ab...

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...al activation in response to uncertainty. Psychopaths also show reduced activation in thesventromedial prefrontal cortex, when viewing emotional expressions and people being hurts(Marsh et al., 2013; =-=Decety, Michalska, & Akitsuki, 2008-=-).s10sSome studies hint at subtleties in results as well as null findings. For example, Bjork,sChen, and Hommer (2012) found that activity in the anterior cingulate cortex and the middlesfrontal corte...

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...ments to the prefrontal cortex, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and thesamygdala, both involved in the normal development of punishment association and reward andspunishment processing (=-=Baxter & Murray, 2002-=-; Wallace et al., 2014). This potentially providess18sevidence that psychopaths may be not be deterred from offending or reoffending by severespunishments due to these impairments. Thus, traditional p...

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...ed emotion processing, and by implication thesamygdala. Studies have hypothesized that impaired fear recognition plays a role in the lack ofs6sempathy considered a core characteristic of psychopathy (=-=Blair, 2008-=-). As such, while thesfunctional neuroanatomy of psychopathy involves multiple brain areas, a focus on the amygdalasbears directly on the core feature of psychopathy and for this reason has garnered c...

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...dings have not been completely consistent, but generally trend towards asvolume reduction in the amygdala associated with psychopathy (Yang, Raine, Narr, Colletti, &sToga, 2009; Boccardi et al. 2011; =-=Ermer, Cope, Nyalakanti, Calhoun, & Kiehl, 2012-=-;sTiihonenset al., 2000; see Schiltz et al. 2007 for a null finding).sIn addition to their finding of significantsbilateral volume reductions in psychopaths, Yang et al. (2009) identified localized su...

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...n recognized as heterogeneous, with a specific subsetsdisplaying high levels of callous-unemotional (CU) traitssand who exhibit particularlysaggressive and stable trajectories of antisocial behavior (=-=Frick, 2009-=-), a pattern similar to adultspsychopaths (also Kahn, Frick,sYoungstrom, Findling, & Youngstrom, 2012).sRelativelyspessimistic views of treatment possibilities for adult psychopaths (e.g. Harris & Ric...

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...ood, including lower levels of omega-3,s33shas been thought to negatively affect brain structure, function, and is associated with latersantisocial behavior in adolescence and adulthood (Raine, 2008; =-=Liu, 2011-=-).sRecently, Raine et al. (2014) reported findings from a randomized controlled trialsshowing that omega-3 supplementation results in long-term improvement in callous-unemotionalstraits in 8-16 year o...

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... the reward-oriented behavior of youth with psychopathicstendencies to promote, encourage and reward pro-social behavior instead of punitive orsdisciplinary methods (Viding, Fontaine, & McCroy, 2012; =-=Frick et al., 2014-=-). Other research hasssuggested that intensive interventions specifically tailored to the behavioral problems ofs28sindividual youth with elevated callous-unemotional traits may be effective (Frick et...

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... according to moral reasons, “severely”spsychopathic individuals are inherently incapable of formulating moral responsibility for theirsactions and understanding the moral principles of criminal law (=-=Levy, 2007-=-; Morse, 2008).sTherefore, traditional punishment is obsolete and they should not be legally blamed or punishedsfor their behavior in the justice system (Levy, 2007; Morse, 2008; Glenn, Raine, & Laufe...

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...p couldsin theory better inform treatment, and could change current juvenile adjudication processes.sThere is a fairly large body of neural imaging research on CD children (e.g. Huebner et al., 2008,s=-=Fairchild et al., 2013-=-), but much fewer on the subset of DBD children with CU traits. In thescontext of the review below, it must be borne in mind that this is a recent and developing field,sand as such firm conclusions ca...

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...act (Moriarty, 2008). Courts are still debatingsthe relevance and role of this data in the courtroom, whether it should be admissible, and how itscould adversely affect jury or judge decision-making (=-=Farah, 2004-=-; Mobbs, Lau, Jones, & Friths2007; Fabian, 2010).sEven so, brain imaging evidence demonstrating structural and functional impairments insregions involved in impulse control, emotional processing, mora...

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...f biomechanism evidence surroundingspsychopathy significantly reduced sentencing severity and the extent to which judges classifiedspsychopathy as an aggravating factor in their sentencing decisions (=-=Aspinwall et al., 2012-=-).sSimilar to discussions about degrees of moral and legal responsibility for psychopaths, one judgeswho viewed the evidence as a mitigating factor commented, “The evidence that psychopaths dosnot hav...

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...tral prefrontal cortex. Similarly, at least three studies found that psychopathy was associatedswith decreased grey matter (Ermer et al., 2012, De Oliverira-Souza et al., 2008) and areasmeasurements (=-=Dolan, Deakin, Roberts, & Anderson, 2002-=-) in a variety of brain areas, includingsthe orbitofrontal cortex. Bertsch et al. (2013) observed volumetric reductions in the dorsomedialsprefrontal cortex in addition to the posterior cingulate/prec...

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...e, manysrecent studies have concluded that assessments of juvenile psychopathy have been largelysineffective in predicting adult psychopathic offending (Cauffman, Kimonis, Dmitrieva, &sMonahan, 2009; =-=Edens & Cahill, 2007-=-; Stockdale, Olver, & Wong, 2010; Gretton et al., 2004)sand many individuals who exhibit psychopathic tendencies as children do not exhibit theses31stendencies in adulthood (Lynam, Caspi, Moffitt, Loe...

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...ent brain development, that may affect their decisions on sentencing or attitudes towardsstreatment alternatives.sSimilar to concerns surrounding DNA evidence and other technical scientific evidences(=-=Hans, 2007-=-), there are already worries about the abilities of juries and judges to understandsbrain-imaging data and appropriately and effectively utilize it in their decision-making (Farah,s2004; Mobbs, Lau, J...

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...e often seen as much more dangeroussand violent than other offenders, highly likely to recidivate, and unable to be treated, which canshave significant effect on the legal decisions rendered to them (=-=Lyon & Ogloff, 2000-=-; Skeem etsal., 2011). Yet, some scholars have argued that brain research on this disorder has demonstratedsthat these traditional, harsher punishments for psychopathic offenders may be ineffective an...

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...ive sentences (Sharp & Kine, 2008). Labeling juvenile offenderssas psychopaths has often led to the assumption that they pose a greater risk of reoffending andshigher risks of violence in the future (=-=Boccaccini et al., 2008-=-), as the label creates the assumptionsthat youth with psychopathic traits are just as unresponsive to treatment or intervention as adultspsychopaths (Seagrave & Grisso, 2002). Therefore, treatment or...

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...ral MRIsIn adults, findings have not been completely consistent, but generally trend towards asvolume reduction in the amygdala associated with psychopathy (Yang, Raine, Narr, Colletti, &sToga, 2009; =-=Boccardi et al. 2011-=-; Ermer, Cope, Nyalakanti, Calhoun, & Kiehl, 2012;sTiihonenset al., 2000; see Schiltz et al. 2007 for a null finding).sIn addition to their finding of significantsbilateral volume reductions in psycho...

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...stand the limitations of the evidence before its use (Mobbs, Lau,sJones, & Frith, 2007).sPredictionsAlthough there has been some debate on the ability of psychopathy to effectively predictsoffending (=-=Coid, Ullrich, & Kallis, 2013-=-), the literature has largely indicated that scores onspsychopathy assessments predict both violent and non-violent offending, albeit imperfectlys(Kiehl & Hoffman, 2010; Richards, Casey, & Lucente, 20...

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...gsthe relevance and role of this data in the courtroom, whether it should be admissible, and how itscould adversely affect jury or judge decision-making (Farah, 2004; Mobbs, Lau, Jones, & Friths2007; =-=Fabian, 2010-=-).sEven so, brain imaging evidence demonstrating structural and functional impairments insregions involved in impulse control, emotional processing, morality, empathy and othersbehaviors, such as thos...

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...ior cingulatescortical activation in response to uncertainty. Psychopaths also show reduced activation in thesventromedial prefrontal cortex, when viewing emotional expressions and people being hurts(=-=Marsh et al., 2013-=-; Decety, Michalska, & Akitsuki, 2008).s10sSome studies hint at subtleties in results as well as null findings. For example, Bjork,sChen, and Hommer (2012) found that activity in the anterior cingulat...

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... as adultspsychopaths (Seagrave & Grisso, 2002). Therefore, treatment or other interventions may besdenied to youth offenders with psychopathic tendencies and have possible ill effects onssentencing (=-=Book, Clark, Forth, & Hare, 2013-=-).sAs psychopathy is seen as an aggravating factor for both adult and youth offenders,sresearch indicating inherent neural and processing deficits in juvenile psychopathic offendersscould potentially ...

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..., with a particular scarcity of structural MRI studies. Twosstudies found that psychopathic incarcerated adolescents had decreased grey matter volumes insthe orbitofrontal cortex (Ermer et al., 2012; =-=Cope, Ermer, Nyalakanti, Calhoun, & Kiehl, 2014-=-).sIn contrast, De Brito et al. (2009), found increased grey matter concentration in the medialsorbitofrontal cortex (and anterior cingulate cortex) of boys with elevated CU traits. This findingsled D...

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...general, research on the punishment and sentencing of adult psychopaths has shownsthat they often receive harsher, longer and more retributive sentences than other offenderss(Medina & McCranie, 2010; =-=Gazzaniga, 2011-=-). They are often seen as much more dangeroussand violent than other offenders, highly likely to recidivate, and unable to be treated, which canshave significant effect on the legal decisions rendered...

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... scholars have argued that brain research on this disorder has demonstratedsthat these traditional, harsher punishments for psychopathic offenders may be ineffective andsobsolete for several reasons (=-=Aharoni et al., 2007-=-; Morse, 2008).sFirst, it has been thought that psychopaths are less able to associate their actions withsrelated punishment and are less sensitive to punishment (Fowles, 1980; Lykken, 1995). Assshown...

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...Relativelyspessimistic views of treatment possibilities for adult psychopaths (e.g. Harris & Rice, 2006) havesled to a refocusing on a perhaps less refractory population, DBD children with CU traitss(=-=Anderson & Kiehl, 2014-=-).sResearch has used the same brain imaging techniques (i.e. functional MRI, structuralsMRI) to parse neural abnormalities in such adolescents and children (Marsh et al., 2013).sIdentifying abnormal n...

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...ssing deficits identified inspsychopaths and its role, relevance, and use in the courtroom has also created discussion andsdivided opinion. This evidence is often described as a “double-edged” sword (=-=Barth 2007-=-),smeaning evidence can seen as either a mitigator or aggravator when determining level ofsresponsibility and corresponding sentence for offenders in court. Nevertheless, robust data onsexactly how th...

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...havioral therapy. Repetitive transcranial magneticsstimulation (rTMS) has also been discussed as a potential non-invasive treatment method to altersbrain function in psychopaths (Glenn & Raine, 2009; =-=Canavero, 2014-=-; Maibom, 2014) and recentsinitial studies on transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) appears to affect risk-taking,smoral decision-making, and feelings of guilt (Fecteau et al., 2007a; Fecteau...

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...(Frick, 2009), a pattern similar to adultspsychopaths (also Kahn, Frick,sYoungstrom, Findling, & Youngstrom, 2012).sRelativelyspessimistic views of treatment possibilities for adult psychopaths (e.g. =-=Harris & Rice, 2006-=-) havesled to a refocusing on a perhaps less refractory population, DBD children with CU traitss(Anderson & Kiehl, 2014).sResearch has used the same brain imaging techniques (i.e. functional MRI, stru...

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...nshave trouble making statistical inferences from scientific evidence, such as understandingsfalsifiability and error rate, which in turn could undermine their decision-making (Gatowski etsal., 2001; =-=Kaye et al., 2007-=-). The use of this data in trials involving juvenile psychopathicsoffenders would likely add an additional burden to these existing concerns.sThe counter-perspective is that understanding error rates ...

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...n used in court as a mitigator or aggravator do not exists(Morse & Newsome, 2013), and imaging data in capital cases is almost always brought in by thesdefense, and rarely if ever by the prosecution (=-=Kolla & Brodie, 2012-=-). However, in non-capitalscases, judges are not usually guided by legal doctrine on the types of evidence that should besconsidered either aggravating or mitigating. They are also not guided on how m...

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...chopaths are stillscriminally responsible for their acts and should be accordingly adjudicated and punished withinsthe criminal justice system irrespective of the cause of their moral incapacitation (=-=Levy, 2011-=-).sThus, there is a lack of consensus regarding to what degree psychopaths are legally or morallysculpable for their behavior and what types of punishments or social control should be utilized.sEviden...

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...s amygdalas12sresponsiveness to fearful faces (but not other emotional expressions) compared to healthyscontrols (Marsh et al., 2008; Jones, Laurens, Herba, Barker, & Viding, 2009; White et al. 2012;s=-=Lozier, Cardinale, VanMeter, & Marsh, 2014-=-) and compared to children with conduct problemssbut low callous-unemotional traits (Viding et al., 2012). Several studies have used other methodssto measure emotion processing and interpretation (Seb...

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...ice SystemsPunishmentsIn general, research on the punishment and sentencing of adult psychopaths has shownsthat they often receive harsher, longer and more retributive sentences than other offenderss(=-=Medina & McCranie, 2010-=-; Gazzaniga, 2011). They are often seen as much more dangeroussand violent than other offenders, highly likely to recidivate, and unable to be treated, which canshave significant effect on the legal d...