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...ding and mathematical computations (Jones and Morris, 1992; Banbury et al., 2001). Distractions may also interfere with the cognitive flow state that characterizes intense engagement with work tasks (=-=Csikszentmihalyi, 1990-=-). Distractions from people talking are particularly difficult to ignore due to potential for salient information. Overhearing people talk, especially in a shared context, triggers an involuntary, ref...

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...ture attention or the user voluntarily switches attention (Weiser and Brown, 1996) in order to focus on the information in the environment, to assess its meaning and to plan future courses of action (=-=Hutchins, 2002-=-). Although some degree of awareness is likely to be beneficial in all work settings, the appropriate level depends upon the nature of the work and the time in a project or process cycle. Research sug...

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...d to go someone’s aid Collaborative knowledge work environments Loss of privacy Loss of con¢dentiality Increased distractions from people talking nearby Increased interruptions portive relationships (=-=Baumeister and Leary, 1995-=-; Lawrence and Nohria, 2002). Evolutionary psychologists argue that on-going social exchange and gossip are deeply ingrained in human behaviour and may have evolved to aid understanding of other indiv...

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...alization. This transfer happens through social networks as people encounter one another throughout the normal working day in both formal and informal settings (Allen, 1977; Backhouse and Drew, 1992; =-=Brown and Duguid, 2000-=-). Ethnographic research in work settings has begun to identify behavioural patterns that characterize knowledge work. Using behavioural observations, shadowing, in-depth interviews and time utilizati...

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...benefits of and constraints associated with informal interactions. Collaboration Overview Collaboration involves at least two people interacting over time to produce a joint product or other outcome (=-=McGrath, 1984-=-; Kraut et al., 1990). Collaboration includes both long-duration interactions (e.g. problem-solving sessions and demonstrations) and short-duration interactions that might last just a few minutes rath...

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... for instance, more effective storage of individual documents. Despite the ability to store all documents electronically, many workers still have piles of paper on desks and other available surfaces (=-=Sellen and Harper, 2002-=-). From the perspective of individual work effectiveness, paper has many advantages over electronic documents. It is easier to read, review, edit and annotate. Lahlou (1999) approached the design of s...

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...2002). Evolutionary psychologists argue that on-going social exchange and gossip are deeply ingrained in human behaviour and may have evolved to aid understanding of other individual’s mental states (=-=Dunbar, 1997-=-) as well as to solidify group ties (Wilson et al., 2000). At the organizational level, friendships at work have been shown to increase overall satisfaction and commitment (Buckingham and Coffman, 199...

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...through writing, speech or graphic visualization. This transfer happens through social networks as people encounter one another throughout the normal working day in both formal and informal settings (=-=Allen, 1977-=-; Backhouse and Drew, 1992; Brown and Duguid, 2000). Ethnographic research in work settings has begun to identify behavioural patterns that characterize knowledge work. Using behavioural observations,...

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... been shown to increase overall satisfaction and commitment (Buckingham and Coffman, 1999) and to promote positive citizenship, such as helping others and being involved in organizational activities (=-=Organ and Ryan, 1995-=-). Links between brief interactions and physical space Ethnographic and space syntax analysis research has begun to identify both spatial features and worker behaviours that distinguish high and low i...

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...actions. Processing of this information is primarily through peripheral channels and is used to maintain an on-going knowledge of others’ locations, activities and intentions (Weiser and Brown, 1996; =-=Gutwin and Greenberg, 2001-=-). . Brief interaction includes functional communications (e.g. fact checking, passing on information and asking questions) as well as social interactions such as quick personal exchanges, bantering a...

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...ctive, informal face-to-face interactions aid understanding and problem-solving due to the enriched context, including facial expressions, gestures, posture, appearance and reactions of other people (=-=Kendon, 1990-=-). Face-to-face interaction is also more flexible and can respond better to ambiguity and uncertainty (Allen, 1971). Brief, informal interaction may also aid organizational and individual learning by ...

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...n those at a greater distance. Since Allen’s landmark studies on communication patterns in office settings, other researchers have confirmed the importance of propinquity for informal communications (=-=Kraut et al., 1990-=-; Serrato, 2002). Taken together, these results present a picture of work that is complex, opportunistic, non-linear and improvizational. Research also shows a work context that presents serious cogni...

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...up interaction related to knowledge sharing is most beneficial when knowledge is not codified, i.e. when ‘know how’ is experiential and tacit rather than attained by following manuals and procedures (=-=Hansen, 2002-=-). Hansen argues that maintaining relationships and networks reduces the time needed for task accomplishment and should be encouraged only when the value of information gained from the relationships i...

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... large part, from interruptions to on-going work Interruptions result from workers needing to check facts, set up meetings, conduct status checks or get help in order to move their own tasks forward (=-=Perlow, 1999-=-). A unique observational method developed by Lahlou (1999) and colleagues at a research laboratory in Paris uses a small video camera mounted on eyeglasses to observe activity from the worker’s persp...

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...nation among actions, responses, activities and tasks (Zalesny et al., 1995). Teams work jointly to solve problems, develop plans, discuss new ideas, coordinate efforts and deal with emerging crises (=-=Katzenbach and Smith, 1999-=-). Teams benefit from collocation, which aids on-going interaction, information sharing, crisis management and spontaneous meetings. In contrast, work groups tend to rely more on individual tasks that...

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...possibly motivation (Veitch et al., 2003). Research also shows that window views influence cognitive functioning, especially distant views or views of nature. Benefits include improved concentration (=-=Hartig et al., 1991-=-), stress reduction (Kaplan, 1992) and increased ‘cognitive tranquillity’ (Clearwater and Coss, 1999). The cognitive and psychological benefits of views may result from the ability to weave minimental...

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...on work groups also shows that high levels of information flow and information sharing is valuable for group decision-making, especially when information is shared before the need to make a decision (=-=Kerr and Tindale, 2004-=-). New information is less valuable when it is introduced at a decision point because group members have less time to think about it and integrate it into their individual problem perspective. High in...

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...tential for salient information. Overhearing people talk, especially in a shared context, triggers an involuntary, reflexive response that switches attention from the task to the talking individuals (=-=Pashler et al., 2001-=-). In contrast, working in a café or other public place is less distracting because the surrounding conversations are not likely to be meaningful or informative to the listener. Although work can cont...

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...igh awareness may be beneficial for teams and groups experiencing the following social and cognitive demands: . dynamic task environment (Hutchins, 2002) . sense of urgency or intense time pressures (=-=Teasley et al., 2000-=-; Cachere et al., 2003) Table 1 Elements of awareness Element Relevant questions addressed Collaborative knowledge work environments . need to share information and obtain rapid feedback to questions ...

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...n and regularized procedures. Even in these circumstances, however, interaction with colleagues is important for coordination as well as for the development of trust and social relationships at work (=-=Gabarro, 1987-=-; Tsai and Ghoshal, 1998). At a personal level, friendships and a sense of belonging at work fulfil a basic human need for continuing and supKey bene¢ts Potential constraints and problems Improved coo...

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...d information displays The available research suggests that high levels of brief, informal interaction are valuable under the following circumstances: . when the task has a high level of uncertainty (=-=Katz and Tushman, 1979-=-) . when groups are faced with high time pressure to produce or upgrade a product or service (Teasley et al., 2000) . for multidisciplinary groups that must gain rapid understanding of one another (Al...

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... includes mundane tasks such as storing and retrieving information, calendaring, returning telephone calls, and composing and responding to e-mail (Suchman, 2000), which can take a considerable time (=-=Reder and Schwab, 1990-=-). By its very nature, knowledge work is both highly cognitive and highly social. Workers need time alone to think and develop ideas, drawing on their own memory, insight and analytical skills. They a...

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... work environments . need to share information and obtain rapid feedback to questions (Marks, 2002; Cachere et al., 2003) . high need for transparency of tasks and operations to support coordination (=-=Horgen et al., 1999-=-) Examples of high-awareness workplaces include trading floors, emergency control rooms and air traffic control towers. Interestingly, we are learning a great deal about workspace awareness from compu...

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...portunistic, non-linear and improvizational. Research also shows a work context that presents serious cognitive challenges resulting from multitasking, excessive information load and unfinished work (=-=Kirsh, 2000-=-). The links between (1) physical space, (2) focused individual work and (3) interactive work are reviewed below. Consideration is given to how the features and attributes of space support or inhibit ...

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...t to engage someone in conversation drops off dramatically after 30 metres Separation by more than 30 metres is equivalent to being in different buildings, if not in different geographical locations (=-=Allen, 1971-=-). Even within this 30-metre range, those nearest to one another communicate more than those at a greater distance. Since Allen’s landmark studies on communication patterns in office settings, other r...

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...arch on situation awareness focuses on how the arrangement of equipment and physical layout of the task environment influence access to information and coordination of activities among group members (=-=Artman, 2000-=-). Displays and artefacts that can be readily seen and evaluated by group members create a greater degree of shared awareness. Potential bene¢ts and constraints High levels of workplace awareness have...

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...t because group members have less time to think about it and integrate it into their individual problem perspective. High information sharing also contributes to mutual awareness of ‘who knows what’ (=-=Moreland and Argote, 2003-=-). Building and maintaining relationships and camaraderie among workers also benefit from frequent interaction. For instance, Carletta et al. (2000) found that teasing, joking and work banter increase...

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...). Research also shows that window views influence cognitive functioning, especially distant views or views of nature. Benefits include improved concentration (Hartig et al., 1991), stress reduction (=-=Kaplan, 1992-=-) and increased ‘cognitive tranquillity’ (Clearwater and Coss, 1999). The cognitive and psychological benefits of views may result from the ability to weave minimental breaks into on-going work, there...

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...oing social exchange and gossip are deeply ingrained in human behaviour and may have evolved to aid understanding of other individual’s mental states (Dunbar, 1997) as well as to solidify group ties (=-=Wilson et al., 2000-=-). At the organizational level, friendships at work have been shown to increase overall satisfaction and commitment (Buckingham and Coffman, 1999) and to promote positive citizenship, such as helping ...

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...ris, 1992). Irrelevant speech is Collaborative knowledge work environments detrimental to reading comprehension, short-term memory, proofreading and mathematical computations (Jones and Morris, 1992; =-=Banbury et al., 2001-=-). Distractions may also interfere with the cognitive flow state that characterizes intense engagement with work tasks (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Distractions from people talking are particularly diffi...

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...time alone to think and develop ideas, drawing on their own memory, insight and analytical skills. They also need ‘hassle-free’ time for non-conscious processing that aids creativity and imagination (=-=Claxton, 2000-=-). Yet, in order for ideas and concepts to become useful to an organization, they must be made available to others for scrutiny and further development. Thus, knowledge work also involves conversation...

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...owing evidence for health and quality of life problems. Workers often increase effort in the face of challenges to their work and this can lead to psychophysiological stress (Tafalla and Evans, 1992; =-=Evans and Johnson, 2000-=-). In addition, people often work extra hours to compensate for lost efficiency associated with distractions, interruptions and time spent communicating with others (Teasley et al., 2000). This contri...

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...vironment Mental fatigue due to high information and sensory load Applies to a limited range of work contexts (complex, multidisciplinary science and engineering projects) of enclosure (Archea, 1977; =-=Pedersen, 1997-=-), low density that provides adequate distance from disruptive noise (Kupritz, 1998; Fried et al., 2001) and distance from high-circulation areas (Backhouse and Drew, 1992). Many offices also include ...

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...k is perceived as high-level cognitive work, it also includes mundane tasks such as storing and retrieving information, calendaring, returning telephone calls, and composing and responding to e-mail (=-=Suchman, 2000-=-), which can take a considerable time (Reder and Schwab, 1990). By its very nature, knowledge work is both highly cognitive and highly social. Workers need time alone to think and develop ideas, drawi...

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...individual work due to effects on attention and concentration. For instance, high temperatures and poor ventilation reduce effectiveness on numerous mental tasks due to drowsiness and reduced effort (=-=Wyon, 1996-=-). In contrast, the ability personally to control temperatures and ventilation at the desk top has beneficial effects on numerous individual work tasks (Kroner et al., 1992; Menzies et al., 1997). Alt...

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... perceived as a key to organizational effectiveness in an increasing number of work contexts – from service and policy-making organizations to scientific research and development groups (Kraus, 1980; =-=Beyerlein et al., 2003-=-). Responding to this intense interest in collaboration, the design professions, consulting community and furniture industry have developed new workplace concepts, spaces, tools and furnishings intend...

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...ue to drowsiness and reduced effort (Wyon, 1996). In contrast, the ability personally to control temperatures and ventilation at the desk top has beneficial effects on numerous individual work tasks (=-=Kroner et al., 1992-=-; Menzies et al., 1997). Although the exact mechanisms by which personal control works are still unclear, it is likely that having the ability to create personally comfortable environments increases c...

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...nts have been documented in the research going back to the landscaped office design (McCarrey et al., 1974). Problems include loss of privacy, loss of confidentiality, distractions and interruptions (=-=Sundstrom et al., 1982-=-; Brill et al., 2001). However, there is some indication that a highly open environment might lead to reduced interruptions and distractions due to the greater availability of nonverbal and behavioura...

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...increased positive affect at work and created a sense of solidarity among group members. There is also evidence that informal social relationships foster integration of work processes between groups (=-=Gutpa et al., 1999-=-). Although there are numerous benefits of interaction, problems also exist largely because of distractions and interruptions. Overheard conversations have a high potential to be experienced as ‘irrel...

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...ng, speech or graphic visualization. This transfer happens through social networks as people encounter one another throughout the normal working day in both formal and informal settings (Allen, 1977; =-=Backhouse and Drew, 1992-=-; Brown and Duguid, 2000). Ethnographic research in work settings has begun to identify behavioural patterns that characterize knowledge work. Using behavioural observations, shadowing, in-depth inter...

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...ation displays and dedicated project rooms (Allen, 1977; Katzenbach and Smith, 1999). Creative problem solving by the group may also benefit from group tools and artefacts (Sutton and Hargadon, 1966; =-=Hargadon, 1999-=-). In contrast, work groups with an intermittent need for interaction (such as committees) may function effectively with scheduled meetings in traditional conference rooms. . Cognitive complexity of t...

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...ntry way or on a more indirect pathway. 516 A pre- and post-study of professional workers in an office setting found that proximity was important to friendship opportunities and information exchange (=-=Szilagyi and Holland, 1980-=-). Workers were studied in both old and new offices that varied in the degree of social density. Those who experienced an increase in social density (measured as the number of employees within a 50-fo...

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...eneral, teams have a high degree of interdependence between members, a specific goal that all are working toward and the need for frequent coordination among actions, responses, activities and tasks (=-=Zalesny et al., 1995-=-). Teams work jointly to solve problems, develop plans, discuss new ideas, coordinate efforts and deal with emerging crises (Katzenbach and Smith, 1999). Teams benefit from collocation, which aids on-...

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...distractions, there is growing evidence for health and quality of life problems. Workers often increase effort in the face of challenges to their work and this can lead to psychophysiological stress (=-=Tafalla and Evans, 1992-=-; Evans and Johnson, 2000). In addition, people often work extra hours to compensate for lost efficiency associated with distractions, interruptions and time spent communicating with others (Teasley e...

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...xtent of access into and within a space is influenced by the presence or absence of doors, walls, windows, workstation panels, mirrors, light, the size of the space and physical proximity of workers (=-=Archea, 1977-=-). The scale of space and proximity of co-workers primarily affect the sensory modes used to track information. For instance, at close distances, all sensory modes are relevant. At further distances, ...

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...k contexts (complex, multidisciplinary science and engineering projects) of enclosure (Archea, 1977; Pedersen, 1997), low density that provides adequate distance from disruptive noise (Kupritz, 1998; =-=Fried et al., 2001-=-) and distance from high-circulation areas (Backhouse and Drew, 1992). Many offices also include small, enclosed spaces (focus booths) for concentration and privacy. Although there is no systematic re...

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... day. Other studies show that workers often tend to do what is easy to accomplish in a given time frame or what has attracted their attention, rather than what is important (Backhouse and Drew, 1992; =-=Lahlou, 1999-=-). . Task switching is common and results, in large part, from interruptions to on-going work Interruptions result from workers needing to check facts, set up meetings, conduct status checks or get he...

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...reduced effort (Wyon, 1996). In contrast, the ability personally to control temperatures and ventilation at the desk top has beneficial effects on numerous individual work tasks (Kroner et al., 1992; =-=Menzies et al., 1997-=-). Although the exact mechanisms by which personal control works are still unclear, it is likely that having the ability to create personally comfortable environments increases comfort and possibly mo...

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...blem-solving are likely to require group technologies and tools, including information displays, surfaces for tracking progress, shared databases and visualization technologies (Teasley et al., 2000; =-=Chachere et al., 2003-=-). Under these circumstances, enclosed project rooms may be desirable. . Task structure Groups with highly interdependent and parallel tasks are likely to benefit from spaces that support on-going coo...

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...d judged as boring by the worker (Zijlstra et al., 1999). Research also suggests strong individual differences in response to distractions, with introverts more likely to be bothered than extroverts (=-=Belojevic et al., 2001-=-), as are those who score high on noise sensitivity and annoyance measures (Kjellberg et al., 1996). Interruptions may also make it difficult for workers to get tasks completed on time. Ethnographic r...

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...mething about them, e.g. they do not try hard enough, they are not motivated. Observers (e.g. managers) tend to ignore factors in the worker’s environment that contribute to performance difficulties (=-=Heerwagen et al., 1985-=-). A second potential explanation concerns the reward structure in organizations. Since rewards are often geared toward individual achievement, workers benefit by behaving ‘heroically’ and overcoming ...

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...ed range of work contexts (complex, multidisciplinary science and engineering projects) of enclosure (Archea, 1977; Pedersen, 1997), low density that provides adequate distance from disruptive noise (=-=Kupritz, 1998-=-; Fried et al., 2001) and distance from high-circulation areas (Backhouse and Drew, 1992). Many offices also include small, enclosed spaces (focus booths) for concentration and privacy. Although there...

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...xist largely because of distractions and interruptions. Overheard conversations have a high potential to be experienced as ‘irrelevant speech’, defined as speech not related to the individual’s task (=-=Jones and Morris, 1992-=-). Irrelevant speech is Collaborative knowledge work environments detrimental to reading comprehension, short-term memory, proofreading and mathematical computations (Jones and Morris, 1992; Banbury e...

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...orative knowledge work environments Loss of privacy Loss of con¢dentiality Increased distractions from people talking nearby Increased interruptions portive relationships (Baumeister and Leary, 1995; =-=Lawrence and Nohria, 2002-=-). Evolutionary psychologists argue that on-going social exchange and gossip are deeply ingrained in human behaviour and may have evolved to aid understanding of other individual’s mental states (Dunb...

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...ertainty (Allen, 1971). Brief, informal interaction may also aid organizational and individual learning by spreading knowledge broadly in the overall social system (Gabarro, 1987; Rizzo et al., 1999; =-=Bagnara and Marti, 2001-=-). Informal interactions may be a valuable mode of learning because a large amount of any organization’s knowledge resides in people’s heads rather than in written form and it is easier to access by a...

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...1) using a survey methodology. There is evidence, however, that some types of workers, such as software engineers, are more inclined to use e-mail than either telephone or face-to-face communication (=-=Brager et al., 2000-=-). . Most face-to-face interactions at work are opportunistic rather than planned Observational studies show that interactions result largely from movement patterns and spatial visibility that make wo...

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...9). The cognitive and psychological benefits of views may result from the ability to weave minimental breaks into on-going work, thereby restoring attentional capacity and the ability to concentrate (=-=Kaplan, 1995-=-, 2001). Potential bene¢ts and constraints The availability of individual workspaces that aid focused attention and reduce distractions and interruptions has numerous benefits, including increased tim...

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...ned Observational studies show that interactions result largely from movement patterns and spatial visibility that make workers available for recruitment into conversations (Backhouse and Drew, 1992; =-=Penn et al., 1999-=-; Rashid et al., 2004). Interactions often occur in or near personal workstations and on well-trafficked corridors. . Although workers can store most documents electronically, many still prefer paper ...

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... New York offices. Key goals of the design were to improve collaboration, to build a ‘collective intelligence’, to encourage creativity, to improve quality of work and to retain high-quality workers (=-=Sims et al., 1998-=-). The staff did not have permanent workspaces, but instead were encouraged to move around during the day and to work in different spaces as their tasks and needs changed. In addition, they could work...

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...ed procedures. Even in these circumstances, however, interaction with colleagues is important for coordination as well as for the development of trust and social relationships at work (Gabarro, 1987; =-=Tsai and Ghoshal, 1998-=-). At a personal level, friendships and a sense of belonging at work fulfil a basic human need for continuing and supKey bene¢ts Potential constraints and problems Improved coordination Rapid informat...

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...e meaning of events and actions. Processing of this information is primarily through peripheral channels and is used to maintain an on-going knowledge of others’ locations, activities and intentions (=-=Weiser and Brown, 1996-=-; Gutwin and Greenberg, 2001). . Brief interaction includes functional communications (e.g. fact checking, passing on information and asking questions) as well as social interactions such as quick per...

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...ight lead to reduced interruptions and distractions due to the greater availability of nonverbal and behavioural cues that modulate interaction (Allen and Gerstberger, 1973; Backhouse and Drew, 1992; =-=Becker and Sims, 2001-=-). When people are focused on an individual task, their posture, eye gaze and demeanour indicate they are not available for conversation. However, if they look up, make eye contact or walk around, oth...

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...hough there is no systematic research on the effectiveness of these spaces, evidence from a case study suggests that focus booths and small enclosed rooms have had mixed 523sHeerwagen et al. success (=-=Heerwagen et al., 2002-=-). The case study identified several design problems, including poor soundproofing, a lack of connections to local area networks and a lack of mobile technologies to support spontaneous movement betwe...

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... differences in response to distractions, with introverts more likely to be bothered than extroverts (Belojevic et al., 2001), as are those who score high on noise sensitivity and annoyance measures (=-=Kjellberg et al., 1996-=-). Interruptions may also make it difficult for workers to get tasks completed on time. Ethnographic research in a software development company found that people frequently interrupted by others compl...

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...laboration is perceived as a key to organizational effectiveness in an increasing number of work contexts – from service and policy-making organizations to scientific research and development groups (=-=Kraus, 1980-=-; Beyerlein et al., 2003). Responding to this intense interest in collaboration, the design professions, consulting community and furniture industry have developed new workplace concepts, spaces, tool...

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... Cachere et al., 2003) Table 1 Elements of awareness Element Relevant questions addressed Collaborative knowledge work environments . need to share information and obtain rapid feedback to questions (=-=Marks, 2002-=-; Cachere et al., 2003) . high need for transparency of tasks and operations to support coordination (Horgen et al., 1999) Examples of high-awareness workplaces include trading floors, emergency contr...

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... does not leave physical traces, it may be increasingly important to have artefacts and visual displays of information to aid coordination, memory and understanding the work as a whole (Lahlou, 1999; =-=McGee, 2002-=-). McGee argues that information displays are important to reconstructing a plan or reasoning behind a particular piece of work. Often these elements are a more effective learning tool than the final,...

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...tudies show that interactions result largely from movement patterns and spatial visibility that make workers available for recruitment into conversations (Backhouse and Drew, 1992; Penn et al., 1999; =-=Rashid et al., 2004-=-). Interactions often occur in or near personal workstations and on well-trafficked corridors. . Although workers can store most documents electronically, many still prefer paper Sellen and Harper (20...

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...to ambiguity and uncertainty (Allen, 1971). Brief, informal interaction may also aid organizational and individual learning by spreading knowledge broadly in the overall social system (Gabarro, 1987; =-=Rizzo et al., 1999-=-; Bagnara and Marti, 2001). Informal interactions may be a valuable mode of learning because a large amount of any organization’s knowledge resides in people’s heads rather than in written form and it...

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...o identify features in the real work setting that could usefully be emulated in the computer workspace to enhance the sense of presence when people cannot be face-to-face (Gutwin and Greenberg, 2001; =-=Rognin and Bannon, 2001-=-). The Workspace Awareness Research group, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada, identifies several key elements in workspace awareness. Although the group uses this framework for the development of...

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... distance. Since Allen’s landmark studies on communication patterns in office settings, other researchers have confirmed the importance of propinquity for informal communications (Kraut et al., 1990; =-=Serrato, 2002-=-). Taken together, these results present a picture of work that is complex, opportunistic, non-linear and improvizational. Research also shows a work context that presents serious cognitive challenges...

Citation Context

...h the exact mechanisms by which personal control works are still unclear, it is likely that having the ability to create personally comfortable environments increases comfort and possibly motivation (=-=Veitch et al., 2003-=-). Research also shows that window views influence cognitive functioning, especially distant views or views of nature. Benefits include improved concentration (Hartig et al., 1991), stress reduction (...