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...he learner can explore new and alternative hypotheses. Producing these new ideas in gesture is an excellent signal that the learner is in a transitional state and ready to make use of relevant input (=-=Goldin-Meadow 2003-=-). More specifically, children whose gestures convey different ideas from their speech when they explain a task are more likely to profit from instruction in that task than children whose gestures are...

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... least in part, from its capacity to engage the motor system (see Ping et al. 2014). Motor experience has been shown to shape learning in a variety of domains (e.g., Glenberg et al. 2007; Smith 2005; =-=Sommerville et al. 2005-=-; Wiedenbauer and Jansen-Osmann 2008), and gesture, which is a motoric act, may rely on similar mechanisms. New fMRI evidence finds that children who produce speech and gesture when learning about mat...

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...onous speech-pointing combinations in word-learning contexts (de Villiers Rader and Zukow-Goldring 2012). Infants begin producing gestures themselves around 9 months, even before they begin speaking (=-=Bates 1976-=-) and at 1 year use points to inform others, as well as to retrieve information from adults (Tomasello et al. 2007; Kovács et al. 2014). Just like older children, the gestures that infants and young c...

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...nt ideas from their speech when they explain a task are more likely to profit from instruction in that task than children whose gestures are redundant with their speech (Church and GoldinMeadow 1986; =-=Perry et al. 1988-=-). Thus, gesture is a red flag—a marker that a learner is in a prime state for learning. But are these subtle cues only accessible to trained researchers, painstakingly coding and recoding learner’s g...

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...l the world to see, that they know more than they say. The information a learner conveys uniquely in gesture is often encapsulated or implicit knowledge, not yet accessible to explicit understanding (=-=Alibali and Goldin-Meadow 1993-=-). Yet, since gesture is not bound by the conventions of spoken language, it can provide an alternative avenue through which the learner can explore new and alternative hypotheses. Producing these new...

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...and they produce supplemental speech + gesture combinations (i.e., pointing to a cup and saying Bdaddy^ to mean Bdaddy’s cup^) right before they begin to create twoword utterances in spoken language (=-=Iverson and Goldin-Meadow 2005-=-). Finally, children who have not yet learned all of their number words are more accurate when labeling sets of items in gesture than in speech (Gunderson et al. 2015). Young children can also benefit...

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...e likely many mechanisms through which gesture has its effects. For example, gesture can link abstract concepts in the immediate environment (Alibali et al. 2014), gesture can reduce cognitive load ( =-=Goldin-Meadow et al. 2001-=-; Hu et al. 2015; Ping and Goldin-Meadow 2010), and gesture can enhance spoken communication (Hostetter 2011). In addition, since gesture is an act of the body, its effects on learning may stem, at le...

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...). Infants begin producing gestures themselves around 9 months, even before they begin speaking (Bates 1976) and at 1 year use points to inform others, as well as to retrieve information from adults (=-=Tomasello et al. 2007-=-; Kovács et al. 2014). Just like older children, the gestures that infants and young children produce provide insight into what they know, even before they can express that knowledge in words. Childre...

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...chers, as well as college undergraduates, are sensitive to the content conveyed uniquely in students’ gestures. Untrained adults are able to see beyond children’s speech in assessing their knowledge (=-=Alibali et al. 1997-=-). If asked to instruct children who do, and do not, convey information uniquely in gesture, adults are more likely to provide rich instruction to children whose gestures differ from their speech than...

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...not, convey information uniquely in gesture, adults are more likely to provide rich instruction to children whose gestures differ from their speech than to children whose gestures match their speech (=-=Goldin-Meadow and Singer 2003-=-), suggesting that adults are aware (although not necessarily consciously) that gesture is a tool they can use to predict who will profit from instruction. How Producing Gesture Can Support Learning S...

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...ad to increased student gesturing. Research has found that when instructors gesture during a lesson, children are more likely to gesture as well, which, in turn, leads them to profit from the lesson (=-=Cook and Goldin-Meadow 2006-=-). By gesturing themselves, not only do teachers improve the quality of a lesson but they also create a classroom culture that includes gesturing. Finally, gestures can be particularly helpful in a cl...

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...rt Learning Gesture can also support learning when children see a teacher gesture during instruction and do not produce gestures of their own (Cook et al. 2013; Church et al. 2004; Perry et al. 1995; =-=Valenzeno et al. 2003-=-). For example, the pointing and tracing gestures that teachers use to indicate the symmetry of shapes helps preschoolers learn the concept of bilateral symmetry (Valenzeno et al. 2003). This effect m...

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...may stem, at least in part, from its capacity to engage the motor system (see Ping et al. 2014). Motor experience has been shown to shape learning in a variety of domains (e.g., Glenberg et al. 2007; =-=Smith 2005-=-; Sommerville et al. 2005; Wiedenbauer and Jansen-Osmann 2008), and gesture, which is a motoric act, may rely on similar mechanisms. New fMRI evidence finds that children who produce speech and gestur...

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... learning. How Seeing Gesture Can Support Learning Gesture can also support learning when children see a teacher gesture during instruction and do not produce gestures of their own (Cook et al. 2013; =-=Church et al. 2004-=-; Perry et al. 1995; Valenzeno et al. 2003). For example, the pointing and tracing gestures that teachers use to indicate the symmetry of shapes helps preschoolers learn the concept of bilateral symme...

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...en learning about the same problems (Wakefield et al. 2015). This pattern of activation largely overlaps with neural networks involved in learning through action on objects (cf. James and Swain 2011; =-=Johnson-Frey 2004-=-). Gesture may thus support learning because it is a type of action. However, gesture is representational action, making it different from action on objects, which is meant to carry out functions, not...

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...g Gesture Can Support Learning Gesture can also support learning when children see a teacher gesture during instruction and do not produce gestures of their own (Cook et al. 2013; Church et al. 2004; =-=Perry et al. 1995-=-; Valenzeno et al. 2003). For example, the pointing and tracing gestures that teachers use to indicate the symmetry of shapes helps preschoolers learn the concept of bilateral symmetry (Valenzeno et a...

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...s effects on learning may stem, at least in part, from its capacity to engage the motor system (see Ping et al. 2014). Motor experience has been shown to shape learning in a variety of domains (e.g., =-=Glenberg et al. 2007-=-; Smith 2005; Sommerville et al. 2005; Wiedenbauer and Jansen-Osmann 2008), and gesture, which is a motoric act, may rely on similar mechanisms. New fMRI evidence finds that children who produce speec...

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...ir spoken language vocabulary (LeBarton et al. 2015). Toddlers are more likely to learn the concept of Bunder^ if given instruction with gesture than if given instruction with pictures or just words (=-=McGregor et al. 2009-=-). Finally, iconic gesture instruction (but not pointing instruction) teaches 2-year-old children how to operate a novel toy, suggesting that by 2 years of age, children can benefit from the represent...

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...ure has its effects. For example, gesture can link abstract concepts in the immediate environment (Alibali et al. 2014), gesture can reduce cognitive load ( Goldin-Meadow et al. 2001; Hu et al. 2015; =-=Ping and Goldin-Meadow 2010-=-), and gesture can enhance spoken communication (Hostetter 2011). In addition, since gesture is an act of the body, its effects on learning may stem, at least in part, from its capacity to engage the ...

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.... Gesture is so pervasive that people routinely do it on the phone when no one can see them. Even congenitally blind individuals, who have never seen anyone gesture, move their hands when they speak (=-=Iverson and Goldin-Meadow 1998-=-). Gestures add a spatial or imagistic component to spoken language, and since gestures are not confined to the linear, ruled-based system of spoken language, they have the potential to express ideas ...

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...ting when other tools are not available. Gestures can be used to represent ideas that are challenging to demonstrate (e.g., using the hands to represent molecules that are otherwise too small to see, =-=Stieff and Raje 2010-=-). Gestures can also be used by children in place of physical objects, like manipulatives. Unlike manipulatives, which can be cumbersome and likely have to remain in the classroom, hands travel with t...

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...ent of learning. Action, which involves manipulating objects, might lead children to think that their learned actions are relevant only to those objects themselves, resulting in shallow learning (see =-=McNeil and Uttal 2009-=-). In contrast, gesture, which occurs off objects, provides a physical distance, which may be critical for abstracting away from a particular context and generalizing to new contexts. In other words, ...

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...capacity to engage the motor system (see Ping et al. 2014). Motor experience has been shown to shape learning in a variety of domains (e.g., Glenberg et al. 2007; Smith 2005; Sommerville et al. 2005; =-=Wiedenbauer and Jansen-Osmann 2008-=-), and gesture, which is a motoric act, may rely on similar mechanisms. New fMRI evidence finds that children who produce speech and gesture when learning about mathematics problems are more likely to...

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...d to learning. How does gesture promote learning? There are likely many mechanisms through which gesture has its effects. For example, gesture can link abstract concepts in the immediate environment (=-=Alibali et al. 2014-=-), gesture can reduce cognitive load ( Goldin-Meadow et al. 2001; Hu et al. 2015; Ping and Goldin-Meadow 2010), and gesture can enhance spoken communication (Hostetter 2011). In addition, since gestur...

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...nces in spoken language (Iverson and Goldin-Meadow 2005). Finally, children who have not yet learned all of their number words are more accurate when labeling sets of items in gesture than in speech (=-=Gunderson et al. 2015-=-). Young children can also benefit from explicit gesture interventions, like schoolaged children. Eighteen-month-olds who are given pointing training increase the number of gesture meanings they expre...

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...ing gestures themselves around 9 months, even before they begin speaking (Bates 1976) and at 1 year use points to inform others, as well as to retrieve information from adults (Tomasello et al. 2007; =-=Kovács et al. 2014-=-). Just like older children, the gestures that infants and young children produce provide insight into what they know, even before they can express that knowledge in words. Children will begin to refe...

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...matics problems are more likely to later activate motor regions when just passively solving the math problems in a scanner than children who produce only speech when learning about the same problems (=-=Wakefield et al. 2015-=-). This pattern of activation largely overlaps with neural networks involved in learning through action on objects (cf. James and Swain 2011; Johnson-Frey 2004). Gesture may thus support learning beca...

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...f perspectives they mentioned in speech; in fact, the more multiple-perspectives they produced in gesture prior to the lesson, the more multiple-perspectives they produced in speech after the lesson (=-=Beaudoin-Ryan and Goldin-Meadow 2014-=-). Encouraging children to move their hands activates implicit ideas that prime children for learning not only in spatial domains, like math, but also in inherently nonspatial domains, like morality. ...

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...rough which gesture has its effects. For example, gesture can link abstract concepts in the immediate environment (Alibali et al. 2014), gesture can reduce cognitive load ( Goldin-Meadow et al. 2001; =-=Hu et al. 2015-=-; Ping and Goldin-Meadow 2010), and gesture can enhance spoken communication (Hostetter 2011). In addition, since gesture is an act of the body, its effects on learning may stem, at least in part, fro...

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...ting instruction) teaches 2-year-old children how to operate a novel toy, suggesting that by 2 years of age, children can benefit from the representational structure of gesture in a learning context (=-=Novack et al. 2015-=-). Learning from gesture is thus a pervasive phenomenon across the lifespan. Educ Psychol Rev (2015) 27:405–412 409 Open Questions and Implications for Educational Settings There remain many open ques...

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... in promoting deep learning. How Seeing Gesture Can Support Learning Gesture can also support learning when children see a teacher gesture during instruction and do not produce gestures of their own (=-=Cook et al. 2013-=-; Church et al. 2004; Perry et al. 1995; Valenzeno et al. 2003). For example, the pointing and tracing gestures that teachers use to indicate the symmetry of shapes helps preschoolers learn the concep...

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...produce only speech when learning about the same problems (Wakefield et al. 2015). This pattern of activation largely overlaps with neural networks involved in learning through action on objects (cf. =-=James and Swain 2011-=-; Johnson-Frey 2004). Gesture may thus support learning because it is a type of action. However, gesture is representational action, making it different from action on objects, which is meant to carry...

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...who are given pointing training increase the number of gesture meanings they express during spontaneous interactions with their caregivers, which, in turn, increases their spoken language vocabulary (=-=LeBarton et al. 2015-=-). Toddlers are more likely to learn the concept of Bunder^ if given instruction with gesture than if given instruction with pictures or just words (McGregor et al. 2009). Finally, iconic gesture inst...

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... enhance spoken communication (Hostetter 2011). In addition, since gesture is an act of the body, its effects on learning may stem, at least in part, from its capacity to engage the motor system (see =-=Ping et al. 2014-=-). Motor experience has been shown to shape learning in a variety of domains (e.g., Glenberg et al. 2007; Smith 2005; Sommerville et al. 2005; Wiedenbauer and Jansen-Osmann 2008), and gesture, which i...

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...l-aged children learning about abstract concepts like mathematics but can also support learning in infancy and young childhood. Babies as young as 4.5 months direct their attention to dynamic points (=-=Rohlfing et al. 2012-=-) and at 1 year benefit from synchronous speech-pointing combinations in word-learning contexts (de Villiers Rader and Zukow-Goldring 2012). Infants begin producing gestures themselves around 9 months...