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...ntal level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (=-=Vygotsky, 1978-=-, p. 86). The ZPD has captivated educators and psychologists for a number of reasons. One is the notion of assisted performance, which, although not equivalent to the ZPD, has been the driving force b...

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... two general misconceptions about the ZPD. The first is that the ZPD is the same thing as scaffolding or assisted performance, and the second is that it is similar to Krashen’s notion of i 1 (e.g., =-=Krashen, 1982-=-). Both assumptions are inaccurate. Scaffolding, a term coined by Jerome Bruner and his colleagues nearly three decades ago (see Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976), refers to any type of adult–child (expert–...

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...is that it is similar to Krashen’s notion of i 1 (e.g., Krashen, 1982). Both assumptions are inaccurate. Scaffolding, a term coined by Jerome Bruner and his colleagues nearly three decades ago (see =-=Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976-=-), refers to any type of adult–child (expert–novice) assisted performance. This is not what the ZPD is about. For one thing, in such expert–novice interactions, the goal is to complete the task rather...

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...ntal activity, a phenomenon called private speech. Considerable research has been carried out on the development of private speech among children learning their first language (see Diaz & Berk, 1992; =-=Wertsch, 1985-=-). L2 researchers, beginning with the work of Frawley and Lantolf (1985), have also begun to investigate the cognitive function of private speech in the case of L2 users. Among the features of private...

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...s have documented how classroom learners of second languages, including immersion learners, push linguistic development forward by talking, either in the L1 or L2, about features of the new language (=-=Swain, 2000-=-, in press; Swain & Lapkin, 2002). In addition, recall our discussion of the function of imitation in the internalization process. Learners 11. SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY AND SLA 215 [MAB7] ch11_8041_vanPat...

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...theory has difficulty accounting for the appearance of unattested L1 forms in L2 speaker performance, and therefore it is better seen as a sociolinguistic rather than a psycholinguistic theory (e.g., =-=Ellis, 1997-=-). To give a specific example, L2 speakers frequently regularize the past tense of English verbs such as eat, take, and go (*eated, *taked, *goed), but the regular forms do not occur in the speech of ...

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...e, and frequently creative, reasoning process. The second misconception relates more directly to the ZPD, which is easily the most widely used and yet least understood of the central concepts of SCT (=-=Chaiklin, 2003-=-). There are two general misconceptions about the ZPD. The first is that the ZPD is the same thing as scaffolding or assisted performance, and the second is that it is similar to Krashen’s notion of i...

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...ts, for example, was observed to experiment with the Japanese stem waru- (bad) in which she first expands it to form the adverbial “waruku” and then changes it to the non-past adjective form “warui” (=-=Ohta, 2001-=-, p. 64). Among the numerous examples of imitation documented in CentenoCortés’ (2003) research is the case of a student who reports having encountered the Spanish word for postage stamp, sello, “on t...

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...lassroom learners of second languages, including immersion learners, push linguistic development forward by talking, either in the L1 or L2, about features of the new language (Swain, 2000, in press; =-=Swain & Lapkin, 2002-=-). In addition, recall our discussion of the function of imitation in the internalization process. Learners 11. SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY AND SLA 215 [MAB7] ch11_8041_vanPatten_LEAs5/19/06s4:50 AMsPage 215...

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...y to mediate our mental activity, a phenomenon called private speech. Considerable research has been carried out on the development of private speech among children learning their first language (see =-=Diaz & Berk, 1992-=-; Wertsch, 1985). L2 researchers, beginning with the work of Frawley and Lantolf (1985), have also begun to investigate the cognitive function of private speech in the case of L2 users. Among the feat...

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...Russian psychologist L. S. Vygotsky and his colleagues. SCT argues that human mental functioning is fundamentally a mediated process that is organized by cultural artifacts, activities, and concepts (=-=Ratner, 2002-=-).2 Within this framework, humans are understood to utilize existing cultural artifacts and to create new ones that allow them to regulate their biological and behavioral activity. Language use, organ...

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... language, while Krashen’s concept focuses on language and the language acquisition device, which is assumed to be the same for all learners, with very little room for differential development (e.g., =-=Dunn & Lantolf, 1998-=-; Thorne, 2000). Krashen’s hypothesis claims that language develops as a result of learners comprehending input that contains features of the new language and that are “slightly” beyond their current ...

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...to reshape biological perception into cultural perception and concepts. For children, thinking and actions at early stages of ontogenetic development are at first subordinated to the words of adults (=-=Luria & Yudovich, 1972-=-). According to Luria and Yudovich, subordination of the child’s actions and thinking to adult speech lifts the child’s mental and physical activity to a new, and qualitatively higher, stage of develo...

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...ther- or object-regulation) when confronted with challenging communicative situations. Under stress, for example, adult native users of a language produce ungrammatical and incoherent utterances (see =-=Frawley, 1997-=-). In this instance, an individual may become regulated by the language as an object, and instead of controlling the language they become disfluent and may require assistance from another person or fr...

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...various educational and play activities in their classroom. One five-year-old L1 Japanese child was recorded talking to herself in English: “I finished, I am finished, I have finished, I’m finished” (=-=Saville-Troike, 1988-=-, p. 584). While no direct evidence of this process is available from adult learners, Gillette (1994) and Lantolf and Genung (2002) found, using interview and diary study techniques, that some adults ...

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...ought of in terms of the amount of assistance provided by the expert to the novice rather than in terms of the quality, and changes in the quality, of assistance negotiated between expert and novice (=-=Stetsenko, 1999-=-). With regard to misconceptions about the ZPD and Krashen’s i 1, the fundamental problem is that the ZPD focuses on the nature of the concrete 11. SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY AND SLA 209 ch11_8041_vanPatt...

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...en’s concept focuses on language and the language acquisition device, which is assumed to be the same for all learners, with very little room for differential development (e.g., Dunn & Lantolf, 1998; =-=Thorne, 2000-=-). Krashen’s hypothesis claims that language develops as a result of learners comprehending input that contains features of the new language and that are “slightly” beyond their current developmental ...

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... Rather imitation can occur with a delay of a day or more, even in children as young as nine months of age (Meltzoff, 2002, p. 21). Deferred imitation permits children to analyze language “off-line” (=-=Meltzoff & Gopnik, 1989-=-, p. 38) and, according to Speidel (1989, p. 163), points to a continuum between imitation and spontaneous language production, with deferred imitation serving as “essential building blocks for sponta...

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...ess of internalization.” Internalization is a negotiated process that reorganizes the relationship of the individual to her or his social environment and generally carries it into future performance (=-=Winegar, 1997-=-, p. 31). Internalization accounts for the organic connection between social communication and mental activity and is the mechanism through which we gain control over our brains, the biological organ ...

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...ernalization accounts for the organic connection between social communication and mental activity and is the mechanism through which we gain control over our brains, the biological organ of thinking (=-=Yaroshevsky, 1989-=-, p. 230). Vygotsky captured the interconnection established by internalization in his general law of genetic development: Every psychological function appears twice, first between people on the inter...