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...ons have been contrasted as task involved versus ego involved (Maehr, 1983;Maehr&Nicholls, 1980;Nicholls, 1979, 1984; see also deCharms, 1968, 1976), as learning oriented versus performance oriented (=-=Dweck, 1986-=-, 1988; Dweck & Elliott, 1984), and as mastery focused versus ability focused (Ames, 1984a; Ames & Ames, 1984). Because the conceptual relations among task, learning, and mastery goals and among ego, ...

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...tions with the perceived mastery and performance structure. Although effort attributions for success were correlated with both mastery {r - .37) and performance (r = .14) goal orientation, a T2 test (=-=Steiger, 1980-=-) for testing differences between nonindependent correlations showed that the perceived covariation between effort and success was more related to the perceived mastery orientation (p < .05). In addit...

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...the evidence that has linked different goal orientations with specific motivational processes has amassed from laboratory studies and not from research in ongoing classroom settings (see Dweck, 1988; =-=Nicholls, 1984-=-, for reviews). In classroom situations, the informational cues that may serve to emphasize one goal or another are often mixed and tend to be inconsistent over time. Even students in the same classro...

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... self-instructions and self-monitoring strategies in conditions rewarding or emphasizing self-improvement rather than social comparison (Ames, 1984b) and when they believed in the efficacy of effort (=-=Bandura & Schunk, 1981-=-; Diener & Dweck, 1978; Schunk & Cox, 1986). Similarly, recent theoretical formulations suggest that students are more likely to think about how to do the task when they are oriented toward learning (...

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...g to pursue challenging tasks, have positive feelings toward the situation, and exhibit an adaptive attributional pattern when they adopt a mastery orientation (Ames, et al., 1977; Dweck, 1986, 1988; =-=Elliott & Dweck, 1988-=-; Nicholls, Patashnick, & Nolen, 1985). Although challenging tasks offer opportunities for learning, they also present the risk of failure, thereby threatening students' sense of worth when failure is...

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...ie, Pintrich, & Lin, 1985) and are related to what others have called support strategies (Dansereau, 1985; Thomas & Rohwer, 1986), selfinstructions and self-monitoring (Corno & Mandinach, 1983; C. E. =-=Weinstein & Mayer, 1986-=-), or strategic thinking (Covington, 1985). Although there has been considerable research on students' knowledge or awareness of these strategies, there has been little attention as to how the context...

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...ction or enjoyment of learning is greater when classroom environments are perceived as encouraging student involvement (Fry & Coe, 1980; Trickett & Moos, 1974) and a sense of personal responsibility (=-=Ryan, 1982-=-; Ryan & Grolnick, 1986) and when students themselves are committed to understanding and learning (Nicholls et al., 1985). Last, researchers who have addressed the situational specificity of attributi...

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...ies. Much of the evidence that has linked different goal orientations with specific motivational processes has amassed from laboratory studies and not from research in ongoing classroom settings (see =-=Dweck, 1988-=-; Nicholls, 1984, for reviews). In classroom situations, the informational cues that may serve to emphasize one goal or another are often mixed and tend to be inconsistent over time. Even students in ...

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...elf-monitoring strategies in conditions rewarding or emphasizing self-improvement rather than social comparison (Ames, 1984b) and when they believed in the efficacy of effort (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; =-=Diener & Dweck, 1978-=-; Schunk & Cox, 1986). Similarly, recent theoretical formulations suggest that students are more likely to think about how to do the task when they are oriented toward learning (Nicholls, 1979, 1984; ...

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...n students in the same classroom may differ in the degree to which they focus on certain cues, as well as how they interpret them (Brattesani, Weinstein, & Marshall, 1984; Marshall & Weinstein, 1984; =-=Ryan & Grolnick, 1986-=-). These individual differences may result from home influences (Ames & Archer, 1987; Parsons, Adler, & Kaczala, 1982), prior experiences (Stipek & Hoffman, 1980), or differential treatment by teacher...

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...ping ways of thinking and strategies that can help them to process information, plan study activities, monitor their attention, and sustain a motivation for learning has been addressed by many (e.g., =-=Corno & Mandinach, 1983-=-; Pressley, 1986; Pressley & Levin, 1983). In this study, we focused on general learning strategies, those 260 ACHIEVEMENT GOALS AND LEARNING STRATEGIES 261 that can be applied to multiple contexts an...

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...experiences, certain learner characteristics (e.g., self-perceptions of ability) may also be expected to influence how students approach and respond to learning tasks (Bandura, 1982; Covington, 1984; =-=Schunk, 1984-=-). For example, a favorable attitude, a willingness to take risks, and the use of effective learning strategies may be more evident among those students who have normatively high assessments of their ...

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...ow they interpret them (Brattesani, Weinstein, & Marshall, 1984; Marshall & Weinstein, 1984; Ryan & Grolnick, 1986). These individual differences may result from home influences (Ames & Archer, 1987; =-=Parsons, Adler, & Kaczala, 1982-=-), prior experiences (Stipek & Hoffman, 1980), or differential treatment by teachers (Marshall & Weinstein, 1986; R. S. Weinstein & Middlestadt, 1979). Thus the extent to which any student adopts a ma...

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... tasks, have positive feelings toward the situation, and exhibit an adaptive attributional pattern when they adopt a mastery orientation (Ames, et al., 1977; Dweck, 1986, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988; =-=Nicholls, Patashnick, & Nolen, 1985-=-). Although challenging tasks offer opportunities for learning, they also present the risk of failure, thereby threatening students' sense of worth when failure is normatively defined (Covington, 1984...

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... 1980;Nicholls, 1979, 1984; see also deCharms, 1968, 1976), as learning oriented versus performance oriented (Dweck, 1986, 1988; Dweck & Elliott, 1984), and as mastery focused versus ability focused (=-=Ames, 1984-=-a; Ames & Ames, 1984). Because the conceptual relations among task, learning, and mastery goals and among ego, performance, and ability goals are convergent, these perspectives have been integrated an...

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...vational processes that are associated withsthese different goals, and the conditions that elicit them. Thesesgoal orientations have been contrasted as task involved versussego involved (Maehr, 1983; =-=Maehr & Nicholls, 1980-=-; Nicholls,s1979, 1984; see also deCharms, 1968, 1976), as learningsoriented versus performance oriented (Dweck, 1986, 1988;sDweck & Elliott, 1984), and as mastery focused versus abilitysfocused (Ames...

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... strategies of this type serve to regulate and monitor time, concentration, effort, and comprehension (McKeachie, Pintrich, & Lin, 1985) and are related to what others have called support strategies (=-=Dansereau, 1985-=-; Thomas & Rohwer, 1986), selfinstructions and self-monitoring (Corno & Mandinach, 1983; C. E. Weinstein & Mayer, 1986), or strategic thinking (Covington, 1985). Although there has been considerable r...

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...ery goals and among ego, performance, and ability goals are convergent, these perspectives have been integrated and are hereafter identified as mastery and performance goals, respectively (cf. Ames & =-=Archer, 1987-=-). With a performance goal orientation, there is a concern with being judged able, and one shows evidence of ability by being successful, by outperforming others, or by achieving success with little e...

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...s, 1979, 1984; see also deCharms, 1968, 1976), as learning oriented versus performance oriented (Dweck, 1986, 1988; Dweck & Elliott, 1984), and as mastery focused versus ability focused (Ames, 1984a; =-=Ames & Ames, 1984-=-). Because the conceptual relations among task, learning, and mastery goals and among ego, performance, and ability goals are convergent, these perspectives have been integrated and are hereafter iden...

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...ies in conditions rewarding or emphasizing self-improvement rather than social comparison (Ames, 1984b) and when they believed in the efficacy of effort (Bandura & Schunk, 1981; Diener & Dweck, 1978; =-=Schunk & Cox, 1986-=-). Similarly, recent theoretical formulations suggest that students are more likely to think about how to do the task when they are oriented toward learning (Nicholls, 1979, 1984; Nolen, 1987) or focu...

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...idence that situational demands can affect the salience of specific goals, which results in differential patterns of cognition, affect, and performance (e.g., Ames, 1984b; Ames, Ames, & Felker, 1977; =-=Covington, 1984-=-; Covington & Omelich, 1984). For example, when social comparison has been made salient, students have focused on their ability, and these self-perceptions have mediated performance and affecThis rese...

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...pplied to multiple contexts and that ought to enhance learning across knowledge domains. Learning strategies of this type serve to regulate and monitor time, concentration, effort, and comprehension (=-=McKeachie, Pintrich, & Lin, 1985-=-) and are related to what others have called support strategies (Dansereau, 1985; Thomas & Rohwer, 1986), selfinstructions and self-monitoring (Corno & Mandinach, 1983; C. E. Weinstein & Mayer, 1986),...

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... strategies that can help them to process information, plan study activities, monitor their attention, and sustain a motivation for learning has been addressed by many (e.g., Corno & Mandinach, 1983; =-=Pressley, 1986-=-; Pressley & Levin, 1983). In this study, we focused on general learning strategies, those 260 ACHIEVEMENT GOALS AND LEARNING STRATEGIES 261 that can be applied to multiple contexts and that ought to ...

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...or another are often mixed and tend to be inconsistent over time. Even students in the same classroom may differ in the degree to which they focus on certain cues, as well as how they interpret them (=-=Brattesani, Weinstein, & Marshall, 1984-=-; Marshall & Weinstein, 1984; Ryan & Grolnick, 1986). These individual differences may result from home influences (Ames & Archer, 1987; Parsons, Adler, & Kaczala, 1982), prior experiences (Stipek & H...

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...is type serve to regulate and monitor time, concentration, effort, and comprehension (McKeachie, Pintrich, & Lin, 1985) and are related to what others have called support strategies (Dansereau, 1985; =-=Thomas & Rohwer, 1986-=-), selfinstructions and self-monitoring (Corno & Mandinach, 1983; C. E. Weinstein & Mayer, 1986), or strategic thinking (Covington, 1985). Although there has been considerable research on students' kn...

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... inconsistent over time. Even students in the same classroom may differ in the degree to which they focus on certain cues, as well as how they interpret them (Brattesani, Weinstein, & Marshall, 1984; =-=Marshall & Weinstein, 1984-=-; Ryan & Grolnick, 1986). These individual differences may result from home influences (Ames & Archer, 1987; Parsons, Adler, & Kaczala, 1982), prior experiences (Stipek & Hoffman, 1980), or differenti...

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...gies. Students' reported use of information processing, self-planning, and self-monitoring strategies were assessed with 15 items adapted from the 90-item Learning and Study Strategy Inventory (C. E. =-=Weinstein, Schulte, & Palmer, 1987-=-). Items were selected to tap strategies that are generic to the process of learning and studying. A factor analysis of the item sample revealed a single factor solution with an alpha coefficient of ....

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...tional demands can affect the salience of specific goals, which results in differential patterns of cognition, affect, and performance (e.g., Ames, 1984b; Ames, Ames, & Felker, 1977; Covington, 1984; =-=Covington & Omelich, 1984-=-). For example, when social comparison has been made salient, students have focused on their ability, and these self-perceptions have mediated performance and affecThis research was supported by a gra...

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...dt, 1979). Thus the extent to which any student adopts a mastery or performance goal orientation depends on how each student constructs the social reality of the classroom for himself or herself (see =-=Rosenholtz & Simpson, 1984-=-). The purpose of this study was to investigate how specific motivation patterns are related to the salience of mastery and performance goals in actual classroom settings. We asked the following quest...

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...nts, the motivational processes that are associated with these different goals, and the conditions that elicit them. These goal orientations have been contrasted as task involved versus ego involved (=-=Maehr, 1983-=-;Maehr&Nicholls, 1980;Nicholls, 1979, 1984; see also deCharms, 1968, 1976), as learning oriented versus performance oriented (Dweck, 1986, 1988; Dweck & Elliott, 1984), and as mastery focused versus a...

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...search from diverse perspectives has shown that student satisfaction or enjoyment of learning is greater when classroom environments are perceived as encouraging student involvement (Fry & Coe, 1980; =-=Trickett & Moos, 1974-=-) and a sense of personal responsibility (Ryan, 1982; Ryan & Grolnick, 1986) and when students themselves are committed to understanding and learning (Nicholls et al., 1985). Last, researchers who hav...

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...fort. Conversely, perceiving a covariation between effort and success, as students who perceived a mastery-oriented climate did, reflects a more adaptive or success-oriented motivation. Others (e.g., =-=McCombs, 1984-=-) have suggested that perceiving strategies as important to learning is also an important component of achievement-motivated behavior. Although our findings showed that strategy attributions were posi...

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...hall, 1984; Marshall & Weinstein, 1984; Ryan & Grolnick, 1986). These individual differences may result from home influences (Ames & Archer, 1987; Parsons, Adler, & Kaczala, 1982), prior experiences (=-=Stipek & Hoffman, 1980-=-), or differential treatment by teachers (Marshall & Weinstein, 1986; R. S. Weinstein & Middlestadt, 1979). Thus the extent to which any student adopts a mastery or performance goal orientation depend...

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...These individual differences may result from home influences (Ames & Archer, 1987; Parsons, Adler, & Kaczala, 1982), prior experiences (Stipek & Hoffman, 1980), or differential treatment by teachers (=-=Marshall & Weinstein, 1986-=-; R. S. Weinstein & Middlestadt, 1979). Thus the extent to which any student adopts a mastery or performance goal orientation depends on how each student constructs the social reality of the classroom...

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...t others have called support strategies (Dansereau, 1985; Thomas & Rohwer, 1986), selfinstructions and self-monitoring (Corno & Mandinach, 1983; C. E. Weinstein & Mayer, 1986), or strategic thinking (=-=Covington, 1985-=-). Although there has been considerable research on students' knowledge or awareness of these strategies, there has been little attention as to how the context of learning affects students' actual use...

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...tuational specificity of attributions have consistently found that normative comparisons elicit attributional tendencies that are characteristic of maladaptive motivation patterns (e.g., Ames, 1984a; =-=Ames & Ames, 1981-=-). Besides classroom experiences, certain learner characteristics (e.g., self-perceptions of ability) may also be expected to influence how students approach and respond to learning tasks (Bandura, 19...

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...esult from home influences (Ames & Archer, 1987; Parsons, Adler, & Kaczala, 1982), prior experiences (Stipek & Hoffman, 1980), or differential treatment by teachers (Marshall & Weinstein, 1986; R. S. =-=Weinstein & Middlestadt, 1979-=-). Thus the extent to which any student adopts a mastery or performance goal orientation depends on how each student constructs the social reality of the classroom for himself or herself (see Rosenhol...

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...hat are associated with these different goals, and the conditions that elicit them. These goal orientations have been contrasted as task involved versus ego involved (Maehr, 1983;Maehr&Nicholls, 1980;=-=Nicholls, 1979-=-, 1984; see also deCharms, 1968, 1976), as learning oriented versus performance oriented (Dweck, 1986, 1988; Dweck & Elliott, 1984), and as mastery focused versus ability focused (Ames, 1984a; Ames & ...

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.... In addition, research from diverse perspectives has shown that student satisfaction or enjoyment of learning is greater when classroom environments are perceived as encouraging student involvement (=-=Fry & Coe, 1980-=-; Trickett & Moos, 1974) and a sense of personal responsibility (Ryan, 1982; Ryan & Grolnick, 1986) and when students themselves are committed to understanding and learning (Nicholls et al., 1985). La...

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...ed challenge, andshad a more positive attitude toward their class. This patternsof relation is consistent with theoretical ssumptions aboutsthe consequences of mastery achievement goals (Dweck,s1988; =-=Nicholls, 1984-=-) and provides field-based evidence ofsrelations that heretofore have been demonstrated in experi-smental settings (e.g., Ames, 1984b; Bandura & Dweck, 1981).sStudents' perceptions of performance goal...

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...; Schunk & Cox, 1986). Similarly, recent theoretical formulations suggest that students are more likely to think about how to do the task when they are oriented toward learning (Nicholls, 1979, 1984; =-=Nolen, 1987-=-) or focused on their own degree of mastery (Ames, 1984b; Covington & Omelich, 1984). Several experimental studies also suggest that students may be more willing to pursue challenging tasks, have posi...

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...ng the goal structure of classroom learning have often focused on decreasing the emphasis that is placed on social and normative comparisons. Our findings, in corroboration with other evidence (e.g., =-=Ames, 1984-=-a; Marshall & Weinstein, 1984; Rosenholtz & Simpson, 1984), suggest that such a plan would have the effect of reducing students' tendency to focus on their ability and evaluate their ability negativel...

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... Ames, 1981). Besides classroom experiences, certain learner characteristics (e.g., self-perceptions of ability) may also be expected to influence how students approach and respond to learning tasks (=-=Bandura, 1982-=-; Covington, 1984; Schunk, 1984). For example, a favorable attitude, a willingness to take risks, and the use of effective learning strategies may be more evident among those students who have normati...

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...sequences of mastery achievement goals (Dweck, 1988; Nicholls, 1984) and provides field-based evidence of relations that heretofore have been demonstrated in experimental settings (e.g., Ames, 1984b; =-=Bandura & Dweck, 1981-=-). Students* perceptions of performance goal orientation were not related to their use of learning strategies or task choices, but they were negatively, although not strongly, related to attitudes and...

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... can help them to process information, plan study activities, monitor their attention, and sustain a motivation for learning has been addressed by many (e.g., Corno & Mandinach, 1983; Pressley, 1986; =-=Pressley & Levin, 1983-=-). In this study, we focused on general learning strategies, those 260 ACHIEVEMENT GOALS AND LEARNING STRATEGIES 261 that can be applied to multiple contexts and that ought to enhance learning across ...

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...t, and comprehension (McKeachie, Pintrich, &sLin, 1985) and are related to what others have called supportsstrategies (Dansereau, 1985; Thomas & Rohwer, 1986), self-sinstructions and self-monitoring (=-=Corno & Mandinach, 1983-=-;sC. E. Weinstein & Mayer, 1986), or strategic thinking (Cov-sington, 1985).sAlthough there has been considerable r search on students'sknowledge or awareness of these strategies, there has beenslittl...

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...s.sMuch of the evidence that has linked different goal orien-stations with specific motivational processes has amassed fromslaboratory studies and not from research in ongoing classroomssettings (see =-=Dweck, 1988-=-; NichoUs, 1984, for reviews). Insclassroom situations, the informational cues that may servesto emphasize one goal or another are often mixed and tendsto be inconsistent over time. Even students in t...

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... inconsistent over time. Even students in the samesclassroom may differ in the degree to which they focus onscertain cues, as well as how they interpret them (Brattesani,sWeinstein, & Marshall, 1984; =-=Marshall & Weinstein, 1984-=-;sRyan & Grolnick, 1986). These individual differences maysresult from home influences (Ames & Archer, 1987; Parsons,sAdler, & Kaczala, 1982), prior experiences (Stipek & Hoff-sman, 1980), or differen...