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...eviews have demonstrated that personality inventories can be useful predictors of job performance, particularly if specific, job-relevant personality constructs are used to predict specific criteria (=-=Barrick & Mount, 1991-=-; Hough, Eaton, Dunnette, Kamp, & McCloy, 1990; Ones, Viswesvaran, & Schmidt, 1993; Tett, Jackson, & Rothstein, 1991). These findings have led to a resurgence of interest in personality testing as an ...

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... most studies assessing the effects of response distortion have used measures that load on both dimensions of socially desirable responding, for example, the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability scale (=-=Crowne & Marlowe, 1960-=-), Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI; Dahlstrom, Welsh, & Dahlstrom, 1972), Lie scale, and the California Psychological Inventory Good Impression scale (Gough, 1975). A key contributio...

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...ortion. A limitation of many studies of response-distortion bias is the use of social desirability scales that confound intentional distortion with substantive variance related to overall adjustment (=-=Paulhus, 1984-=-,1991b). The vast majority of studies exploring social desirability have used the MarloweCrowne scale (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960), which does not appear to be a pure measure of intentional response disto...

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...ularly if specific, job-relevant personality constructs are used to predict specific criteria (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Hough, Eaton, Dunnette, Kamp, & McCloy, 1990; Ones, Viswesvaran, & Schmidt, 1993; =-=Tett, Jackson, & Rothstein, 1991-=-). These findings have led to a resurgence of interest in personality testing as an employee-selection tool. Yet this trend is not without controversy. One major debate concerns the effect of response...

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... 1991). This is particularly so when assessment occurs in a context with strong demand characteristics, such as when applying for a job (Bass, 1957; Christiansen, Goffin, Johnston, & Rothstein, 1994; =-=Leary & Kowalski, 1990-=-; McCrae & Costa, 1983; Paulhus, 1991b). Given the motivation to make a good impression, applicants are likely to want to convey an image that (a) reflects the selfconcept but is biased in a positive ...

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...itz, 1993; Paulhus, 1984; Zerbe & Paulhus, 1987). Similar concerns have been raised about other widely used measures of socially desirable responding, including the Edwards Social Desirability Scale (=-=Edwards, 1957-=-), the Desirability scale from the Personality Research Form (Jackson, 1967), and the K scale from the MMPI (Paulhus, 1991b). For this study, the Impression Management scale from the Balanced Inventor...

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...n raised about other widely used measures of socially desirable responding, including the Edwards Social Desirability Scale (Edwards, 1957), the Desirability scale from the Personality Research Form (=-=Jackson, 1967-=-), and the K scale from the MMPI (Paulhus, 1991b). For this study, the Impression Management scale from the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding Version 6 (BIDRIM; Paulhus, 1991a) was used. Desp...

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...redictors of job performance, particularly if specific, job-relevant personality constructs are used to predict specific criteria (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Hough, Eaton, Dunnette, Kamp, & McCloy, 1990; =-=Ones, Viswesvaran, & Schmidt, 1993-=-; Tett, Jackson, & Rothstein, 1991). These findings have led to a resurgence of interest in personality testing as an employee-selection tool. Yet this trend is not without controversy. One major deba...

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...d that personality inventories can be useful predictors of job performance, particularly if specific, job-relevant personality constructs are used to predict specific criteria (Barrick & Mount, 1991; =-=Hough, Eaton, Dunnette, Kamp, & McCloy, 1990-=-; Ones, Viswesvaran, & Schmidt, 1993; Tett, Jackson, & Rothstein, 1991). These findings have led to a resurgence of interest in personality testing as an employee-selection tool. Yet this trend is not...

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...cluded that socially desirable responding is not a suppressor of the validity of the Big Five factors of personality for employment deci636 ROSSE, STECHER, MILLER, AND LEVIN sions (Ones et al., 1995; =-=Ones, Viswesvaran, & Reiss, 1996-=-). Yet a number of studies—some of them too recent to be included in the meta-analysis—show that corrections for response distortion can improve criterion-related validities (Douglas, McDaniel, & Snel...

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...y scale (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960), Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI; Dahlstrom, Welsh, & Dahlstrom, 1972), Lie scale, and the California Psychological Inventory Good Impression scale (=-=Gough, 1975-=-). A key contribution of this study is the use of a "pure" measure of response distortion, the so-called Impression Management scale of Paulhus' (1991a) Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding. The...

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...article as response distortion (Paulhus 1991b; Zerbe & Paulhus, 1987). Unlike scores on the first factor, scores on this dimension have been found to be particularly sensitive to situational demands (=-=Paulhus & Reid, 1991-=-). It is this intentional distortion that introduces construct-irrelevant variance that may affect the validity and utility of personality scale scores. Unfortunately, most studies assessing the effec...

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...SD = 4.1) were significantly higher than those for job incumbents (M = 7.5, SD = 3.0; ?[2691 = 7.6; p < .001). This difference is substantial, representing an effect size of 1.09 standard deviations (=-=Glass, 1977-=-). Another way of describing the size of the difference is to note that 18% of applicants had response-distortion scores that completely exceeded the range of scores received by incumbents. Applicants...

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...personality testing for hiring employees. According to the currently prevailing argument, even if response distortion occurs, it does not affect the predictive validity of personality inventories (R. =-=Hogan, Hogan, & Roberts, 1996-=-; Hough & Schneider, 1996). Several studies have shown that controlling for the effects of response distortion does not significantly increase the correlations between personality scores and criterion...

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... had little or no practical relevance. More recent studies using samples of actual applicants, in contrast, have indicated that job applicants' personality scores are higher than those of incumbents (=-=Barrick & Mount, 1996-=-; Hough, 1995,1996; Hunt, Hansen, & Paajanen, 1996; White & Moss, 1995). The Effect of Response Distortion on Hiring Decisions A second debate concerns the effect of response distortion on the validit...

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...employees. According to the currently prevailing argument, even if response distortion occurs, it does not affect the predictive validity of personality inventories (R. Hogan, Hogan, & Roberts, 1996; =-=Hough & Schneider, 1996-=-). Several studies have shown that controlling for the effects of response distortion does not significantly increase the correlations between personality scores and criterion measures (Barrick & Moun...

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...iswesvaran, & Reiss, 1996). Yet a number of studies—some of them too recent to be included in the meta-analysis—show that corrections for response distortion can improve criterion-related validities (=-=Douglas, McDaniel, & Snell, 1996-=-; Hunt et al., 1996; Kamp, cited in Hough, 1996; Paajanen, 1987). There are both substantive and methodological reasons to question Ones et al.'s conclusion that response distortion is not a significa...

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...e second factor of socially desirable responding represents deliberate tailoring of answers to create a positive impression, or what we refer to in this article as response distortion (Paulhus 1991b; =-=Zerbe & Paulhus, 1987-=-). Unlike scores on the first factor, scores on this dimension have been found to be particularly sensitive to situational demands (Paulhus & Reid, 1991). It is this intentional distortion that introd...

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...ion and a favorable outcome (Villanova & Bernardin, 1991). This is particularly so when assessment occurs in a context with strong demand characteristics, such as when applying for a job (Bass, 1957; =-=Christiansen, Goffin, Johnston, & Rothstein, 1994-=-; Leary & Kowalski, 1990; McCrae & Costa, 1983; Paulhus, 1991b). Given the motivation to make a good impression, applicants are likely to want to convey an image that (a) reflects the selfconcept but ...

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...onest" person might otherwise lose a job to an applicant who "fakes'' — may be quite persuasive to a judge or jury. Studying this issue from the perspective of procedural justice and social validity (=-=Schuler, 1993-=-) might be very enlightening. Unfortunately, there is little agreement about the optimal statistical approach for adjusting scores (Hough, 1995). Most inventories that include response-distortion meas...

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...r tend to view life with optimism. Studies of response distortion on application blanks have shown that dishonest responses are more likely on questions that are not objective and cannot be verified (=-=Becker & Colquitt, 1992-=-). As Fiske and Taylor (1991) noted, people tend to overstate their abilities unless they believe their actual abilities will be verified. Personality testing thus provides an almost ideal setting for...

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...ttention to the psychometric and social issues underlying more formal response-distortion adjustments. Recent work applying item-response theory to the detection of faking on personality inventories (=-=Zickar & Drasgow, 1996-=-) represents one promising avenue. As researchers and practitioners both become more aware of the threat posed by response distortion to selection systems and to subsequent workforce performance, we a...

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...ettings relies on studies finding that the scores of respondents who were told to respond as if they were applying for a job were very similar to those of respondents told to answer "honestly" (e.g., =-=Ryan & Sackett, 1987-=-). The strongest empirical support for this position is the large-sample study by Hough et al. (1990). However, because Hough et al.'s study dealt with military personnel who had completed the persona...

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...er service positions, such a tendency may be counterproductive for developing effective long-term relationships that are built on trust. For example, faking on the Personal Characteristics Inventory (=-=Barrick & Mount, 1995-=-) is negatively correlated with job performance in customer service positions (M. Mount, personal communication, September 27, 1996). Second, the meaning—and functional value—of response distortion de...

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...t occurs in a context with strong demand characteristics, such as when applying for a job (Bass, 1957; Christiansen, Goffin, Johnston, & Rothstein, 1994; Leary & Kowalski, 1990; McCrae & Costa, 1983; =-=Paulhus, 1991-=-b). Given the motivation to make a good impression, applicants are likely to want to convey an image that (a) reflects the selfconcept but is biased in a positive direction, (b) matches perceived role...

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...n an organizational setting, assessment procedures may create the motivation, as well as the opportunity, to distort responses in order to create a favorable selfpresentation and a favorable outcome (=-=Villanova & Bernardin, 1991-=-). This is particularly so when assessment occurs in a context with strong demand characteristics, such as when applying for a job (Bass, 1957; Christiansen, Goffin, Johnston, & Rothstein, 1994; Leary...

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...and Duck (1995) found that job applicants are likely to answer questions in terms of their role expectations, a form of faking that may be difficult to detect with typical response-distortion scales (=-=Kroger & Turnbull, 1975-=-). A final factor thought to contribute to response distortion is the nonverifiability of responses on personality inventories. Generally speaking, there is no way to verify applicants' assertions tha...

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... profiles, they were 634 RESPONSE DISTORTION 635 quite successful in doing so. Furthermore, Schmit and Ryan (1993) found a large "ideal-employee" factor in responses to the NEO Personality Inventory (=-=Costa & McCrae, 1992-=-) that was not present in a sample of college students. Transparent questions such as those included in many personality inventories make it easier to engage in response distortion (Alliger, Lilienfel...

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...ontrolling for the effects of response distortion does not significantly increase the correlations between personality scores and criterion measures (Barrick & Mount, 1996; Christiansen et al., 1994; =-=Dicken, 1963-=-; Hough, 1995; Hough et al., 1990; McCrae & Costa, 1983). On the basis of a metaanalysis, Ones and her associates concluded that socially desirable responding is not a suppressor of the validity of th...

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...licants do not actually do so. For example, the manual for the Hogan Personnel Selection Series states that' 'the base rate of faking during the job application process is virtually non-existent" (J. =-=Hogan & Hogan, 1986-=-, p. 20). As a result, many of the latest personality inventories designed to measure the fivefactor model of personality do not include a measure of response distortion. The conclusion that response ...

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...by actual job applicants in a realistic employment context when completing a personality inventory. As we have noted earlier, prior evidence has been mixed and many studies (e.g., Hough et al., 1990; =-=LoBello & Sims, 1993-=-; Ryan & Sackett, 1987) did not focus on actual job application settings. The impression-management literature indicates that situational demands are an important factor affecting impression-managemen...

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...esirable responding (see Paulbus, 1991b, for a review). The first factor represents a form of unconscious ego-enhancement manifested by overly positive beliefs about the self-concept (Paulhus, 199Ib; =-=Sacheim & Gur, 1978-=-). As such, this factor is thought to represent a dimension of personality in and of itself, labeled "self-deceptive positivity." Paulhus (1991b) reported substantial correlations between this self-de...

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...elfpresentation and a favorable outcome (Villanova & Bernardin, 1991). This is particularly so when assessment occurs in a context with strong demand characteristics, such as when applying for a job (=-=Bass, 1957-=-; Christiansen, Goffin, Johnston, & Rothstein, 1994; Leary & Kowalski, 1990; McCrae & Costa, 1983; Paulhus, 1991b). Given the motivation to make a good impression, applicants are likely to want to con...

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...s that load on both dimensions of socially desirable responding, for example, the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability scale (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960), Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI; =-=Dahlstrom, Welsh, & Dahlstrom, 1972-=-), Lie scale, and the California Psychological Inventory Good Impression scale (Gough, 1975). A key contribution of this study is the use of a "pure" measure of response distortion, the so-called Impr...

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... included in the meta-analysis—show that corrections for response distortion can improve criterion-related validities (Douglas, McDaniel, & Snell, 1996; Hunt et al., 1996; Kamp, cited in Hough, 1996; =-=Paajanen, 1987-=-). There are both substantive and methodological reasons to question Ones et al.'s conclusion that response distortion is not a significant problem for personality testing. From a substantive perspect...

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... 1950s classic, The Organization Man, contains a critique of the transparency of selection instruments of the day, and a detailed instructional appendix entitled, "How to Cheat on Personality Tests" (=-=Whyte, 1956-=-). Nevertheless, not all assessment specialists believe that response distortion is a problem. An alternative view states that although examinees can distort their responses if instructed to do so, mo...

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...ntional response distortion that has been found to measure conscious faking not related to substantive dimensions of personality that may be related to the broader construct of impression management (=-=Billings et al., 1993-=-). Additionally, the BIDR-IM appears to have a stable factor structure, with coefficients alpha ranging from .75 to .86 (Paulhus, 1991a). The BIDR-IM items were randomly interspersed with those from t...

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...ical relevance. More recent studies using samples of actual applicants, in contrast, have indicated that job applicants' personality scores are higher than those of incumbents (Barrick & Mount, 1996; =-=Hough, 1995-=-,1996; Hunt, Hansen, & Paajanen, 1996; White & Moss, 1995). The Effect of Response Distortion on Hiring Decisions A second debate concerns the effect of response distortion on the validity and usefuln...

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... recent to be included in the meta-analysis—show that corrections for response distortion can improve criterion-related validities (Douglas, McDaniel, & Snell, 1996; Hunt et al., 1996; Kamp, cited in =-=Hough, 1996-=-; Paajanen, 1987). There are both substantive and methodological reasons to question Ones et al.'s conclusion that response distortion is not a significant problem for personality testing. From a subs...

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... recent to be included in the meta-analysis—show that corrections for response distortion can improve criterion-related validities (Douglas, McDaniel, & Snell, 1996; Hunt et al., 1996; Kamp, cited in =-=Hough, 1996-=-; Paajanen, 1987). There are both substantive and methodological reasons to question Ones et al.'s conclusion that response distortion is not a significant problem for personality testing. From a subs...

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...re recent studies using samples of actual applicants, in contrast, have indicated that job applicants' personality scores are higher than those of incumbents (Barrick & Mount, 1996; Hough, 1995,1996; =-=Hunt, Hansen, & Paajanen, 1996-=-; White & Moss, 1995). The Effect of Response Distortion on Hiring Decisions A second debate concerns the effect of response distortion on the validity and usefulness of personality testing for hiring...

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... distribution (corresponding to applicants who are most likely to be hired) may approach zero if response distortion occurs primarily among those who receive the highest scores (Douglas et al., 1996; =-=Levin, 1995-=-; Zickar, Rosse, & Levin, 1996). There are four additional methodological factors that may reduce the sensitivity of correlation analysis in detecting effects of distortion: a skewed distribution of r...

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...ical," "efficient," "careful," and "hardworking," for Conscientiousness; and "unconventional," "open to new ideas," "questioning," "curious," "creative," and "imaginative" for Openness to Experience; =-=Lillibridge & Williams, 1992-=-). Neuroticism, on the other hand, is represented by mostly negative terms (e.g., "anxious," "moody," "temperamental," "emotional," "nervous," and "depressed"). In addition to their general social des...

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...arly so when assessment occurs in a context with strong demand characteristics, such as when applying for a job (Bass, 1957; Christiansen, Goffin, Johnston, & Rothstein, 1994; Leary & Kowalski, 1990; =-=McCrae & Costa, 1983-=-; Paulhus, 1991b). Given the motivation to make a good impression, applicants are likely to want to convey an image that (a) reflects the selfconcept but is biased in a positive direction, (b) matches...

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... her associates concluded that socially desirable responding is not a suppressor of the validity of the Big Five factors of personality for employment deci636 ROSSE, STECHER, MILLER, AND LEVIN sions (=-=Ones et al., 1995-=-; Ones, Viswesvaran, & Reiss, 1996). Yet a number of studies—some of them too recent to be included in the meta-analysis—show that corrections for response distortion can improve criterion-related val...

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...of actual applicants, in contrast, have indicated that job applicants' personality scores are higher than those of incumbents (Barrick & Mount, 1996; Hough, 1995,1996; Hunt, Hansen, & Paajanen, 1996; =-=White & Moss, 1995-=-). The Effect of Response Distortion on Hiring Decisions A second debate concerns the effect of response distortion on the validity and usefulness of personality testing for hiring employees. Accordin...

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... (corresponding to applicants who are most likely to be hired) may approach zero if response distortion occurs primarily among those who receive the highest scores (Douglas et al., 1996; Levin, 1995; =-=Zickar, Rosse, & Levin, 1996-=-). There are four additional methodological factors that may reduce the sensitivity of correlation analysis in detecting effects of distortion: a skewed distribution of response distortion, selection ...