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... meditators, dancers, and controls all demonstrated significant associations between subjective experience and physiology. Although certainly not definitive, the lowmoderate to moderate effect sizes (=-=Cohen, 1988-=-) associated with these correlations and the differences between groups is consistent with a view that there is a certain amount of coherence built into our emotion system but that this may also be in...

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...), with group, sex, and presentation order treated as between subject factors and film treated as a within subject factor. To control for group differences in age, age was centered on its grand mean (=-=Aiken & West, 1991-=-) and entered as a covariate in all analyses. ANCOVAs examining coherence estimates as the dependent variable were conducted on r (Pearson correlation) values, consistent with previous research analyz...

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... Benet-Martinez & John, 1998), which assesses five broad personality dimensions (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism); (b) Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS; =-=Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988-=-), which assesses trait positive and negative affect; (c) Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown & Ryan, 2003), which assesses dispositional mindfulness; and (d) Wahler Physical Health Symptom...

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...es, meditation, physiological responses The concepts of response coherence (Darwin, 1872; Ekman, 1992; Lazarus, 1991; Levenson, 1994; Scherer, 1984; Tomkins, 1962) and awareness of bodily sensations (=-=Damasio, 2000-=-; James, 1884; Levenson, 2003a) are central to many emotion theories. Response coherence implies that emotions organize and synchronize different response systems (Darwin, 1872; Ekman, 1992; Lazarus, ...

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...ning that promotes greater body awareness. Keywords: body awareness, coherence, emotional responses, meditation, physiological responses The concepts of response coherence (Darwin, 1872; Ekman, 1992; =-=Lazarus, 1991-=-; Levenson, 1994; Scherer, 1984; Tomkins, 1962) and awareness of bodily sensations (Damasio, 2000; James, 1884; Levenson, 2003a) are central to many emotion theories. Response coherence implies that e...

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...e who have specialized training that promotes greater body awareness. Keywords: body awareness, coherence, emotional responses, meditation, physiological responses The concepts of response coherence (=-=Darwin, 1872-=-; Ekman, 1992; Lazarus, 1991; Levenson, 1994; Scherer, 1984; Tomkins, 1962) and awareness of bodily sensations (Damasio, 2000; James, 1884; Levenson, 2003a) are central to many emotion theories. Respo...

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...cialized training that promotes greater body awareness. Keywords: body awareness, coherence, emotional responses, meditation, physiological responses The concepts of response coherence (Darwin, 1872; =-=Ekman, 1992-=-; Lazarus, 1991; Levenson, 1994; Scherer, 1984; Tomkins, 1962) and awareness of bodily sensations (Damasio, 2000; James, 1884; Levenson, 2003a) are central to many emotion theories. Response coherence...

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...wareness of bodily sensations implies that information that is visceral (e.g., heart pounding) or somatic (e.g., muscle tension) in origin is critical for determining subjective emotional experience (=-=Lakoff, 1987-=-; Levenson, 1999) and may even be a proximate cause of emotional experience (James, 1884). Although many contemporary emotion theories espouse both of these concepts, little is known about how respons...

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... physiological responses The concepts of response coherence (Darwin, 1872; Ekman, 1992; Lazarus, 1991; Levenson, 1994; Scherer, 1984; Tomkins, 1962) and awareness of bodily sensations (Damasio, 2000; =-=James, 1884-=-; Levenson, 2003a) are central to many emotion theories. Response coherence implies that emotions organize and synchronize different response systems (Darwin, 1872; Ekman, 1992; Lazarus, 1991; Levenso...

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... awareness. Keywords: body awareness, coherence, emotional responses, meditation, physiological responses The concepts of response coherence (Darwin, 1872; Ekman, 1992; Lazarus, 1991; Levenson, 1994; =-=Scherer, 1984-=-; Tomkins, 1962) and awareness of bodily sensations (Damasio, 2000; James, 1884; Levenson, 2003a) are central to many emotion theories. Response coherence implies that emotions organize and synchroniz...

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... pen in one’s mouth to inhibit or facilitate smiling) affects the subjective experience of emotion (Duckworth, Bargh, Garcia, & Chaiken, 2002; Larsen, Kasimatis, & Frey, 1992; Stepper & Strack, 1993; =-=Strack, Martin, & Stepper, 1988-=-; Tom, Pettersen, Lau, Burton, & Cook, 1991). Linguistic (Heelas, 1996; Lakoff, 1987; Pennebaker, 1982) and psychophysiological research (Marchitelli & Levenson, 1992) suggests that the language we us...

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...interoceptive and somatosensory processing (e.g., the insular and somatosensory cortices) has been shown to be present during emotions (Craig, 2009; Critchley, Wiens, Rotshtein, Ohman, & Dolan, 2004; =-=Damasio, 2003-=-). Individuals with spinal cord injuries at locations that would disrupt visceral feedback show attenuation in emotional experience, with this attenuation increasing with the height of the injury (Hoh...

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...9), dancers (��.84), and controls (� �.88) analyzed separately. Other questionnaires. To determine whether the three groups differed in other ways, we administered: (a) Big Five Inventory-44 (BFI-44; =-=Benet-Martinez & John, 1998-=-), which assesses five broad personality dimensions (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism); (b) Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1...

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...for the existence of response coherence, empirical support has been inconsistent and 12 SZE, GYURAK, YUAN, AND LEVENSON inconclusive (Barrett, 2006). Some studies have found coherence among systems (=-=Ekman, Davidson, & Friesen, 1990-=-; Ekman, Friesen, & Ancoli, 1980; Mauss et al., 2005; Rosenberg & Ekman, 1997), while others have found none (Buck, 1977; FernándezDols, Sánchez, Carrera, & Ruiz-Belda, 1997; Fridlund, 1991; Jakobs, M...

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...a central role in emotion. Activity in brain regions related to interoceptive and somatosensory processing (e.g., the insular and somatosensory cortices) has been shown to be present during emotions (=-=Craig, 2009-=-; Critchley, Wiens, Rotshtein, Ohman, & Dolan, 2004; Damasio, 2003). Individuals with spinal cord injuries at locations that would disrupt visceral feedback show attenuation in emotional experience, w...

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...asure was chosen on the basis of what is known about the relationship between cardiac activity and emotion (i.e., that heart period is affected by the intensity of both positive and negative emotion; =-=Bradley & Lang, 1997-=-) and given the nature of our stimuli (i.e., films that induced both positive and negative emotion). Heart period. Heart period was measured continuously using a system consisting of a Grass Model 7 p...

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... Garcia, & Chaiken, 2002; Larsen, Kasimatis, & Frey, 1992; Stepper & Strack, 1993; Strack, Martin, & Stepper, 1988; Tom, Pettersen, Lau, Burton, & Cook, 1991). Linguistic (Heelas, 1996; Lakoff, 1987; =-=Pennebaker, 1982-=-) and psychophysiological research (Marchitelli & Levenson, 1992) suggests that the language we use to describe our emotions is associated with the underlying physiology. As Heelas (1996) has noted, v...

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...ness-based meditation has been associated with improved performance on attentional measures, such as endogenous orienting and internally induced shifts in attention4 SZE, GYURAK, YUAN, AND LEVENSON (=-=Jha, Krompinger, & Baime, 2007-=-), skills thought to be critically involved in body awareness (Craig, 2009; Vaitl, 1996). Dancers. To be included in this group, participants had to meet the following criteria: (a) a minimum of two y...

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... subjective experience is often measured using a single retrospective rating. This approach fails the requirement for continuous measurement and introduces retrospective memory biases (Barrett, 1997; =-=Kahneman & Tversky, 2003-=-). In our work studying the emotions that occur during marital interactions, we developed a rating dial methodology for obtaining continuous ratings of subjective emotional experience (Gottman & Leven...

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... Measurement Issues While there are strong theoretical arguments for the existence of response coherence, empirical support has been inconsistent and 12 SZE, GYURAK, YUAN, AND LEVENSON inconclusive (=-=Barrett, 2006-=-). Some studies have found coherence among systems (Ekman, Davidson, & Friesen, 1990; Ekman, Friesen, & Ancoli, 1980; Mauss et al., 2005; Rosenberg & Ekman, 1997), while others have found none (Buck, ...

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...ed or upright, holding a pen in one’s mouth to inhibit or facilitate smiling) affects the subjective experience of emotion (Duckworth, Bargh, Garcia, & Chaiken, 2002; Larsen, Kasimatis, & Frey, 1992; =-=Stepper & Strack, 1993-=-; Strack, Martin, & Stepper, 1988; Tom, Pettersen, Lau, Burton, & Cook, 1991). Linguistic (Heelas, 1996; Lakoff, 1987; Pennebaker, 1982) and psychophysiological research (Marchitelli & Levenson, 1992)...

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...rence, empirical support has been inconsistent and 12 SZE, GYURAK, YUAN, AND LEVENSON inconclusive (Barrett, 2006). Some studies have found coherence among systems (Ekman, Davidson, & Friesen, 1990; =-=Ekman, Friesen, & Ancoli, 1980-=-; Mauss et al., 2005; Rosenberg & Ekman, 1997), while others have found none (Buck, 1977; FernándezDols, Sánchez, Carrera, & Ruiz-Belda, 1997; Fridlund, 1991; Jakobs, Mansteaed, & Fischer, 2001; Mauss...

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... in which continuous, sustained observation of bodily sensations (particularly visceral sensations like breathing and heartbeats) is thought to result in greater levels of body awareness (Hart, 1987; =-=Kabat-Zinn, 1990-=-). Vipassana meditation has been found to have greater gray matter concentration in the right anterior insula, a region associated with interoceptive awareness (Hölzel et al., 2008). Furthermore, mind...

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...e, behavioral, and physiological responses. In fact, many theorists describe coherence as one of the defining features of emotion, variously referring to it as response system coherence (Ekman, 1992; =-=Mauss, Levenson, McCarter, Wilhelm, & Gross, 2005-=-), concordance (Nesse et al., 1985; Wilhelm & Roth, 2001), synchronization (Scherer, 1984), and organization of response tendencies (Lazarus, 1991; Levenson, 1994). The construct of coherence is typic...

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...tes greater body awareness. Keywords: body awareness, coherence, emotional responses, meditation, physiological responses The concepts of response coherence (Darwin, 1872; Ekman, 1992; Lazarus, 1991; =-=Levenson, 1994-=-; Scherer, 1984; Tomkins, 1962) and awareness of bodily sensations (Damasio, 2000; James, 1884; Levenson, 2003a) are central to many emotion theories. Response coherence implies that emotions organize...

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...en self-reported emotion and physiological response; Stone & Nielson, 2001), and a repressive coping style (lack of coherence between self-reported anxiety and physiological and behavioral responses; =-=Weinberger, Schwartz, & Davidson, 1979-=-). Consistent with this theme, in an unpublished study using the within-subject approach, greater coherence was associated with increased positive affect and well-being (Mauss et al., in preparation)....

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...motion that posit coherence predict close coordination among response systems during emotional episodes (Levenson, 1994); low levels of coherence would be expected when individuals are at rest (e.g., =-=Lacey, 1967-=-; Lazarus, Speisman, & Mordkoff, 1963). To our knowledge, only one prior study has assessed withinindividual coherence in a manner that meets all three of these criteria. We (Mauss et al., 2005) found...

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...Davidson, & Friesen, 1990; Ekman, Friesen, & Ancoli, 1980; Mauss et al., 2005; Rosenberg & Ekman, 1997), while others have found none (Buck, 1977; FernándezDols, Sánchez, Carrera, & Ruiz-Belda, 1997; =-=Fridlund, 1991-=-; Jakobs, Mansteaed, & Fischer, 2001; Mauss, Wilhelm, & Gross, 2004). In examining these studies, two very different paradigms have been used to assess coherence (Buck, 1980; Mauss et al., 2005). In t...

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...al manipulation of bodily posture or facial expression (e.g., sitting slouched or upright, holding a pen in one’s mouth to inhibit or facilitate smiling) affects the subjective experience of emotion (=-=Duckworth, Bargh, Garcia, & Chaiken, 2002-=-; Larsen, Kasimatis, & Frey, 1992; Stepper & Strack, 1993; Strack, Martin, & Stepper, 1988; Tom, Pettersen, Lau, Burton, & Cook, 1991). Linguistic (Heelas, 1996; Lakoff, 1987; Pennebaker, 1982) and ps...

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...awareness (Hart, 1987; Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Vipassana meditation has been found to have greater gray matter concentration in the right anterior insula, a region associated with interoceptive awareness (=-=Hölzel et al., 2008-=-). Furthermore, mindfulness-based meditation has been associated with improved performance on attentional measures, such as endogenous orienting and internally induced shifts in attention4 SZE, GYURA...

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...2 SZE, GYURAK, YUAN, AND LEVENSON inconclusive (Barrett, 2006). Some studies have found coherence among systems (Ekman, Davidson, & Friesen, 1990; Ekman, Friesen, & Ancoli, 1980; Mauss et al., 2005; =-=Rosenberg & Ekman, 1997-=-), while others have found none (Buck, 1977; FernándezDols, Sánchez, Carrera, & Ruiz-Belda, 1997; Fridlund, 1991; Jakobs, Mansteaed, & Fischer, 2001; Mauss, Wilhelm, & Gross, 2004). In examining these...

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...dily sensations implies that information that is visceral (e.g., heart pounding) or somatic (e.g., muscle tension) in origin is critical for determining subjective emotional experience (Lakoff, 1987; =-=Levenson, 1999-=-) and may even be a proximate cause of emotional experience (James, 1884). Although many contemporary emotion theories espouse both of these concepts, little is known about how response coherence and ...

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...ssessed using the between-subjects approach has been associated with a number of negative outcomes, including schizophrenia (lack of coherence between self-reported emotion and behavioral expression; =-=Kring & Neale, 1996-=-), alexithymia (lack of coherence between self-reported emotion and physiological response; Stone & Nielson, 2001), and a repressive coping style (lack of coherence between self-reported anxiety and p...

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...s way. However, subjective experience is often measured using a single retrospective rating. This approach fails the requirement for continuous measurement and introduces retrospective memory biases (=-=Barrett, 1997-=-; Kahneman & Tversky, 2003). In our work studying the emotions that occur during marital interactions, we developed a rating dial methodology for obtaining continuous ratings of subjective emotional e...

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...words: body awareness, coherence, emotional responses, meditation, physiological responses The concepts of response coherence (Darwin, 1872; Ekman, 1992; Lazarus, 1991; Levenson, 1994; Scherer, 1984; =-=Tomkins, 1962-=-) and awareness of bodily sensations (Damasio, 2000; James, 1884; Levenson, 2003a) are central to many emotion theories. Response coherence implies that emotions organize and synchronize different res...

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...a, & Ruiz-Belda, 1997; Fridlund, 1991; Jakobs, Mansteaed, & Fischer, 2001; Mauss, Wilhelm, & Gross, 2004). In examining these studies, two very different paradigms have been used to assess coherence (=-=Buck, 1980-=-; Mauss et al., 2005). In the most common approach, the “between-individual” paradigm (Mauss et al., 2005), the question is typically whether individuals who report greater levels of subjective emotio...

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...elded disparate findings, with some finding positive relationships among systems (e.g., individuals instructed to diminish facial expression during shock delivery had smaller physiological reactions; =-=Lanzetta, Cartwright-Smith, and Kleck, 1976-=-), others finding no relationships (e.g., the magnitude of individuals’ reports of anxiety are not associated with the magnitude of their physiological reaction; Mauss et al., 2004), and yet others fi...

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... expression (e.g., sitting slouched or upright, holding a pen in one’s mouth to inhibit or facilitate smiling) affects the subjective experience of emotion (Duckworth, Bargh, Garcia, & Chaiken, 2002; =-=Larsen, Kasimatis, & Frey, 1992-=-; Stepper & Strack, 1993; Strack, Martin, & Stepper, 1988; Tom, Pettersen, Lau, Burton, & Cook, 1991). Linguistic (Heelas, 1996; Lakoff, 1987; Pennebaker, 1982) and psychophysiological research (March...

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...logies: (a) self-report questionnaires and (b) heartbeat tracking and detection tasks. Selfreport questionnaires consist of items that ask about perceptions of bodily responses (Mandler et al., 1958; =-=Miller, Murphy, & Buss, 1981-=-; Shields, Mallory, & Simon, 1989). In heartbeat tracking tasks, participants are typically asked to count their heartbeats during fixed, brief time periods (Dale & Anderson, 1978; Schandry, 1981). In...

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...ed in Table 5. 5,6 4 While some research has found mindfulness meditation to be associated with increased mindfulness scores on the MAAS (Brown & Ryan, 2003), other research has found no association (=-=MacKillop & Anderson, 2007-=-). Recently, the face validity of this measure in assessing mindfulness from a Buddhist meditation perspective has been called into question (Rosch, 2007). Therefore, it is possible that the lack of g...

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...s of visceral awareness seem most closely related to general concerns with bodily functioning and unrelated to objective criteria of body awareness (e.g., heartbeat detection tasks; for a review, see =-=Mehling et al., 2009-=-). In a broader sense, our estimates of visceral awareness, unlike those of other abilities (e.g., cognitive or physical abilities), are not subject to objective sources of feedback that would help us...

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...003). Individuals with spinal cord injuries at locations that would disrupt visceral feedback show attenuation in emotional experience, with this attenuation increasing with the height of the injury (=-=Hohmann, 1966-=-). Additionally, a number of studies have shown that experimental manipulation of bodily posture or facial expression (e.g., sitting slouched or upright, holding a pen in one’s mouth to inhibit or fac...

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...eir physiological reaction; Mauss et al., 2004), and yet others finding inverse relationships (e.g., individuals exhibiting greater spontaneous facial expression have smaller physiological reactions; =-=Buck, Miller, & Caul, 1974-=-; Lanzetta & Kleck, 1970; Notarius & Levenson, 1979). Another approach to studying response coherence, which arguably is much closer to the theoretical accounts, takes a “withinindividual” approach, c...

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...ork studying the emotions that occur during marital interactions, we developed a rating dial methodology for obtaining continuous ratings of subjective emotional experience (Gottman & Levenson, 1985; =-=Levenson & Gottman, 1983-=-) that we subsequently adopted to obtain continuous ratings of subjective emotional experience (Mauss et al., 2005). Second, it should take into account the different temporal characteristics of vario...

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... facilitate smiling) affects the subjective experience of emotion (Duckworth, Bargh, Garcia, & Chaiken, 2002; Larsen, Kasimatis, & Frey, 1992; Stepper & Strack, 1993; Strack, Martin, & Stepper, 1988; =-=Tom, Pettersen, Lau, Burton, & Cook, 1991-=-). Linguistic (Heelas, 1996; Lakoff, 1987; Pennebaker, 1982) and psychophysiological research (Marchitelli & Levenson, 1992) suggests that the language we use to describe our emotions is associated wi...

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...sen, 1990; Ekman, Friesen, & Ancoli, 1980; Mauss et al., 2005; Rosenberg & Ekman, 1997), while others have found none (Buck, 1977; FernándezDols, Sánchez, Carrera, & Ruiz-Belda, 1997; Fridlund, 1991; =-=Jakobs, Mansteaed, & Fischer, 2001-=-; Mauss, Wilhelm, & Gross, 2004). In examining these studies, two very different paradigms have been used to assess coherence (Buck, 1980; Mauss et al., 2005). In the most common approach, the “betwee...

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...osit coherence predict close coordination among response systems during emotional episodes (Levenson, 1994); low levels of coherence would be expected when individuals are at rest (e.g., Lacey, 1967; =-=Lazarus, Speisman, & Mordkoff, 1963-=-). To our knowledge, only one prior study has assessed withinindividual coherence in a manner that meets all three of these criteria. We (Mauss et al., 2005) found moderate time-lagged correlations am...

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... 1980; Mauss et al., 2005; Rosenberg & Ekman, 1997), while others have found none (Buck, 1977; FernándezDols, Sánchez, Carrera, & Ruiz-Belda, 1997; Fridlund, 1991; Jakobs, Mansteaed, & Fischer, 2001; =-=Mauss, Wilhelm, & Gross, 2004-=-). In examining these studies, two very different paradigms have been used to assess coherence (Buck, 1980; Mauss et al., 2005). In the most common approach, the “between-individual” paradigm (Mauss e...

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...urphy, & Buss, 1981; Shields, Mallory, & Simon, 1989). In heartbeat tracking tasks, participants are typically asked to count their heartbeats during fixed, brief time periods (Dale & Anderson, 1978; =-=Schandry, 1981-=-). In heartbeat detection tasks, participants are typically asked to indicate whether their heartbeats match the rates of external stimuli (typically, auditory tones) that are either synchronous or as...

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...s to describe their emotional states, from “broken hearts” to “bad intestines,” with evidence from cross-national studies that there are consistencies in these bodily representations across cultures (=-=Wallbott & Scherer, 1988-=-). Individuals differ greatly in the extent to which they are focused on and aware of their bodies. These kinds of individual differences have a long history in research in psychophysiology and psycho...

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...conductance, finger pulse transmission time, ear pulse transmission time, respiration period, respiration depth, blood pressure, and general somatic activity) using standard recording procedures (see =-=Shiota & Levenson, 2009-=-, for a full description). For the present purposes, we focused our analyses on heart period because: (a) the heart is a powerful source of visceral sensations, (b) heart sensations are commonly refle...

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... organs controlled by the autonomic nervous system play in emotion and the critical contribution that afferent feedback from these organs plays in the construction of subjective emotional experience (=-=Cacioppo, Berntson, & Klein, 1992-=-; Damasio, 2000; James, 1884; Lakoff, 1987; Levenson, 1999, 2003a). Among autonomic organ systems, the heart plays a major role in providing metabolic support for emotion-related behavioral adaptation...

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...Mauss et al., 2004), and yet others finding inverse relationships (e.g., individuals exhibiting greater spontaneous facial expression have smaller physiological reactions; Buck, Miller, & Caul, 1974; =-=Lanzetta & Kleck, 1970-=-; Notarius & Levenson, 1979). Another approach to studying response coherence, which arguably is much closer to the theoretical accounts, takes a “withinindividual” approach, conceptualizing coherence...

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...e over more common between-subjects approaches in that it assesses the extent that responses in multiple systems are associated within the same individual across time (Buck, 1980; Mauss et al., 2005; =-=Stemmler, 1992-=-); (c) used our rating dial methodology (Ruef & Levenson, 2007) to measure subjective emotional experience with the same temporal resolution as physiological responses; and (d) used time-lagged correl...

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...e as one of the defining features of emotion, variously referring to it as response system coherence (Ekman, 1992; Mauss, Levenson, McCarter, Wilhelm, & Gross, 2005), concordance (Nesse et al., 1985; =-=Wilhelm & Roth, 2001-=-), synchronization (Scherer, 1984), and organization of response tendencies (Lazarus, 1991; Levenson, 1994). The construct of coherence is typically associated with a functionalist perspective: namely...

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..., 2006). Some studies have found coherence among systems (Ekman, Davidson, & Friesen, 1990; Ekman, Friesen, & Ancoli, 1980; Mauss et al., 2005; Rosenberg & Ekman, 1997), while others have found none (=-=Buck, 1977-=-; FernándezDols, Sánchez, Carrera, & Ruiz-Belda, 1997; Fridlund, 1991; Jakobs, Mansteaed, & Fischer, 2001; Mauss, Wilhelm, & Gross, 2004). In examining these studies, two very different paradigms have...

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...onnaires and (b) heartbeat tracking and detection tasks. Selfreport questionnaires consist of items that ask about perceptions of bodily responses (Mandler et al., 1958; Miller, Murphy, & Buss, 1981; =-=Shields, Mallory, & Simon, 1989-=-). In heartbeat tracking tasks, participants are typically asked to count their heartbeats during fixed, brief time periods (Dale & Anderson, 1978; Schandry, 1981). In heartbeat detection tasks, parti...

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...d meditation in which continuous, sustained observation of bodily sensations (particularly visceral sensations like breathing and heartbeats) is thought to result in greater levels of body awareness (=-=Hart, 1987-=-; Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Vipassana meditation has been found to have greater gray matter concentration in the right anterior insula, a region associated with interoceptive awareness (Hölzel et al., 2008)....

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...er greatly in the extent to which they are focused on and aware of their bodies. These kinds of individual differences have a long history in research in psychophysiology and psychosomatic disorders (=-=Mandler, Mandler, Kremen, & Sholiton, 1961-=-; Mandler, Mandler, & Uviller, 1958; Puente, Beiman, Doom, &COHERENCE AND BODY AWARENESS TRAINING 3 Young, 1980) as well as in psychopathologies (e.g., excessive levels of body focus are seen in eati...

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...earch has found no association (MacKillop & Anderson, 2007). Recently, the face validity of this measure in assessing mindfulness from a Buddhist meditation perspective has been called into question (=-=Rosch, 2007-=-). Therefore, it is possible that the lack of group differences in trait mindfulness may be explained by inadequate measurement or lack of power, rather than an actual lack of group differences in tra...

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...bleness, neuroticism); (b) Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988), which assesses trait positive and negative affect; (c) Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS; =-=Brown & Ryan, 2003-=-), which assesses dispositional mindfulness; and (d) Wahler Physical Health Symptoms Inventory (WPHS; Wahler, 1968), which assesses physical symptoms such as headaches and heart trouble. All four of t...

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...used it in our past research on coherence (Mauss et al., 2005) and because it conforms to theoretical notions about the duration and temporal characteristics of emotional and physiological responses (=-=Gratton, 2000-=-; Kettunen, Ravaja, Näätänen, Keskivaara, & Keltikangas-Järvinen, 1998; Levenson, 2003a). 3 Results Overall Analysis Strategy The overall design of the study was 3 � 2 � 3 � 4 (Group X Sex X Order X F...

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...f emotion (Duckworth, Bargh, Garcia, & Chaiken, 2002; Larsen, Kasimatis, & Frey, 1992; Stepper & Strack, 1993; Strack, Martin, & Stepper, 1988; Tom, Pettersen, Lau, Burton, & Cook, 1991). Linguistic (=-=Heelas, 1996-=-; Lakoff, 1987; Pennebaker, 1982) and psychophysiological research (Marchitelli & Levenson, 1992) suggests that the language we use to describe our emotions is associated with the underlying physiolog...

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...rait positive and negative affect; (c) Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown & Ryan, 2003), which assesses dispositional mindfulness; and (d) Wahler Physical Health Symptoms Inventory (WPHS; =-=Wahler, 1968-=-), which assesses physical symptoms such as headaches and heart trouble. All four of these measures have demonstrated adequate reliability and validity in prior studies. 1 In recruiting meditators and...

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...e, 2005; Pennebaker & Hoover, 1984). Moreover, estimates of body awareness derived from these various approaches have been shown to be virtually unrelated (Critchley, 2004; Pennebaker & Hoover, 1984; =-=Whitehead, Drescher, Heiman, & Blackwell, 1977-=-). Finally, the ecological validity of these measures is questionable. Namely, these approaches involve instructing people to self-rate their accuracy in attending to particular bodily functions or to...

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... participants are typically asked to indicate whether their heartbeats match the rates of external stimuli (typically, auditory tones) that are either synchronous or asynchronous with each heartbeat (=-=Brener, Liu, & Ring, 1993-=-; Davis, Langer, Sutterer, Gelling, & Marlin, 1986; Katkin, Morell, Goldband, Bernstein, & Wise, 1982). Unfortunately, both reliability and validity of these measures remains controversial and, thus, ...

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...ts describe coherence as one of the defining features of emotion, variously referring to it as response system coherence (Ekman, 1992; Mauss, Levenson, McCarter, Wilhelm, & Gross, 2005), concordance (=-=Nesse et al., 1985-=-; Wilhelm & Roth, 2001), synchronization (Scherer, 1984), and organization of response tendencies (Lazarus, 1991; Levenson, 1994). The construct of coherence is typically associated with a functionali...

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...ocused on and aware of their bodies. These kinds of individual differences have a long history in research in psychophysiology and psychosomatic disorders (Mandler, Mandler, Kremen, & Sholiton, 1961; =-=Mandler, Mandler, & Uviller, 1958-=-; Puente, Beiman, Doom, &COHERENCE AND BODY AWARENESS TRAINING 3 Young, 1980) as well as in psychopathologies (e.g., excessive levels of body focus are seen in eating disorders, Mangweth et al., 2005...

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...ldband, Bernstein, & Wise, 1982). Unfortunately, both reliability and validity of these measures remains controversial and, thus, none has emerged as the “gold standard” for measuring body awareness (=-=Knapp-Kline & Kline, 2005-=-; Pennebaker & Hoover, 1984). Moreover, estimates of body awareness derived from these various approaches have been shown to be virtually unrelated (Critchley, 2004; Pennebaker & Hoover, 1984; Whitehe...

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...ubset of this scale (8 of the 18 items) was administered using a 5-point Likert scale (1 � not true of me, 5� very true of me). 2 The Autonomic Perception Questionnaire—Revised (Mandler et al., 1958; =-=Shields, 1984-=-) measures perceptions of autonomic nervous system activity (e.g., “When I feel angry, I am aware of increased muscle tension in my body”). The scale was administered using a 7-point Likert scale (1 �...

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...chizophrenia (lack of coherence between self-reported emotion and behavioral expression; Kring & Neale, 1996), alexithymia (lack of coherence between self-reported emotion and physiological response; =-=Stone & Nielson, 2001-=-), and a repressive coping style (lack of coherence between self-reported anxiety and physiological and behavioral responses; Weinberger, Schwartz, & Davidson, 1979). Consistent with this theme, in an...

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...oom, &COHERENCE AND BODY AWARENESS TRAINING 3 Young, 1980) as well as in psychopathologies (e.g., excessive levels of body focus are seen in eating disorders, Mangweth et al., 2005; hypochondriasis, =-=Olatunji, Deacon, Abramowitz, & Valentiner, 2007-=-; and body dysmorphic disorder, Gupta, 2006). Attempts to quantify these individual differences in the empirical literature have focused on two main methodologies: (a) self-report questionnaires and (...

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...it assesses the extent that responses in multiple systems are associated within the same individual across time (Buck, 1980; Mauss et al., 2005; Stemmler, 1992); (c) used our rating dial methodology (=-=Ruef & Levenson, 2007-=-) to measure subjective emotional experience with the same temporal resolution as physiological responses; and (d) used time-lagged correlations (Mauss et al., 2005) to assess coherence, which account...

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...n and ballet dancers are taught to cultivate heightened awareness of proprioceptive sensations from muscles, balance, and posture to guide and coordinate complex movements as they move through space (=-=Aalten, 2004-=-). Thus, their training is similar to meditation in that it emphasizes body awareness but differs in the focus of that awareness (more somatic in dancers, more visceral in meditators) and in its atten...

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...pathologies (e.g., excessive levels of body focus are seen in eating disorders, Mangweth et al., 2005; hypochondriasis, Olatunji, Deacon, Abramowitz, & Valentiner, 2007; and body dysmorphic disorder, =-=Gupta, 2006-=-). Attempts to quantify these individual differences in the empirical literature have focused on two main methodologies: (a) self-report questionnaires and (b) heartbeat tracking and detection tasks. ...

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...the rates of external stimuli (typically, auditory tones) that are either synchronous or asynchronous with each heartbeat (Brener, Liu, & Ring, 1993; Davis, Langer, Sutterer, Gelling, & Marlin, 1986; =-=Katkin, Morell, Goldband, Bernstein, & Wise, 1982-=-). Unfortunately, both reliability and validity of these measures remains controversial and, thus, none has emerged as the “gold standard” for measuring body awareness (Knapp-Kline & Kline, 2005; Penn...

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... 1992; Stepper & Strack, 1993; Strack, Martin, & Stepper, 1988; Tom, Pettersen, Lau, Burton, & Cook, 1991). Linguistic (Heelas, 1996; Lakoff, 1987; Pennebaker, 1982) and psychophysiological research (=-=Marchitelli & Levenson, 1992-=-) suggests that the language we use to describe our emotions is associated with the underlying physiology. As Heelas (1996) has noted, virtually every culture uses bodily expressions to describe their...

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...1982). Unfortunately, both reliability and validity of these measures remains controversial and, thus, none has emerged as the “gold standard” for measuring body awareness (Knapp-Kline & Kline, 2005; =-=Pennebaker & Hoover, 1984-=-). Moreover, estimates of body awareness derived from these various approaches have been shown to be virtually unrelated (Critchley, 2004; Pennebaker & Hoover, 1984; Whitehead, Drescher, Heiman, & Bla...

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... asked to indicate whether their heartbeats match the rates of external stimuli (typically, auditory tones) that are either synchronous or asynchronous with each heartbeat (Brener, Liu, & Ring, 1993; =-=Davis, Langer, Sutterer, Gelling, & Marlin, 1986-=-; Katkin, Morell, Goldband, Bernstein, & Wise, 1982). Unfortunately, both reliability and validity of these measures remains controversial and, thus, none has emerged as the “gold standard” for measur...

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...dler, & Uviller, 1958; Puente, Beiman, Doom, &COHERENCE AND BODY AWARENESS TRAINING 3 Young, 1980) as well as in psychopathologies (e.g., excessive levels of body focus are seen in eating disorders, =-=Mangweth et al., 2005-=-; hypochondriasis, Olatunji, Deacon, Abramowitz, & Valentiner, 2007; and body dysmorphic disorder, Gupta, 2006). Attempts to quantify these individual differences in the empirical literature have focu...

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... package” (p. 496). Similarly, theories of embodied cognition suggest that there is a reciprocal relationship between bodily activity and the way emotional information is processed (for a review, see =-=Niedenthal, 2007-=-). These notions are also found in contemporary neuroscience, with Damasio (2000) postulating that one of the main roles of emotion is to bring the autonomic processes of our bodies into awareness, pr...