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...ng a specific role in Artificial Intelligence, Computational Linguistics, and Database Theory. In particular, its importance is being recognized in research fields as diverse as knowledge engineering =-=[20,45,15,18]-=-, knowledge representation [23,2,42], qualitative modelling [19,9,13], language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-ori...

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...of a database. At the development time, an ontology can play an important role in the requirement analysis and conceptual modelling phase, especially if integrated with lexical resources like WordNet =-=[36]-=- in order to support the analysis of natural language informal specifications [29,1,11,47]. The resulting conceptual model can be represented as a computer processable ontology and from there mapped t...

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...tructure <D,R>, where D is a domain and R is a set or relevant relations on D 6 . This definition has been then used by Tom Gruber, who defined an ontology as “a specification of a conceptualization=-=” [21]-=-. Together with Pierdaniele Giaretta, I have discussed such a definition in [27], arguing that, in order for it to have some sense, a different, intensional account of the notion of conceptualization ...

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... where R wC ={ρ(w) | ρ∈ℜ } is the set of extensions (relative to w) of the elements of ℜ. We shall denote with S C the set {S wC | w∈W} all the intended world structures of C. 6 In a subsequ=-=ent paper [37], Nils N-=-ilsson stresses the importance of the conceptualization for a modeling task. 7 For instance, the two relations “trilateral” and “triangle” turn out to be the same, as they have the same extens...

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...ng a specific role in Artificial Intelligence, Computational Linguistics, and Database Theory. In particular, its importance is being recognized in research fields as diverse as knowledge engineering =-=[20,45,15,18]-=-, knowledge representation [23,2,42], qualitative modelling [19,9,13], language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-ori...

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...d here any further comment. Rather, I will first propose the most recent elaboration of the clarification work on the way the term “ontology” is being used in computer science originally presented=-= in [27]. Al-=-though some progress has been made, I believe there still a good deal of terminological and conceptual confusion, and I will try therefore to further clarify – with respect to the past work – the ...

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...notion of conceptualization introduced above requires however a suitable formalization, since it may generate some confusions. Indeed, a conceptualization has been defined in a well-known AI textbook =-=[17] a-=-s a structure <D,R>, where D is a domain and R is a set or relevant relations on D 6 . This definition has been then used by Tom Gruber, who defined an ontology as “a specification of a conceptualiz...

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...gence, Computational Linguistics, and Database Theory. In particular, its importance is being recognized in research fields as diverse as knowledge engineering [20,45,15,18], knowledge representation =-=[23,2,42]-=-, qualitative modelling [19,9,13], language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-oriented analysis [51,39], information ...

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...on [40], agent-based systems design 1 . Current applications areas are disparate, including enterprise integration [22,46], natural language translation [30,33], medicine [16], mechanical engineering =-=[10]-=-, standardization of product knowledge [8,4,26], electronic commerce [32], geographic information systems [12], legal information systems 2 , biological information systems 3 . I shall use the generic...

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...e to formulate queries at the desired level of specificity. If the ontology in question is a sufficiently large one, i.e. a “top-level” linguistic ontology like WordNet, Mikrokosmos [33], or Pangl=-=oss [43]-=-, then another useful task it can play in the context of a user interface is vocabulary detaching: the user is free to adopt his own natural language terms, which are mapped (after a possible disambig...

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...tware like we have seen in the case of databases, but I am not aware of any contribution in this field (although some proposals to use ontological principles for object-oriented design have been made =-=[52,39]-=-). At run time, we may decide to represent explicitly all the domain knowledge implicitly encoded in the application program, turning the program in a knowledge-based system. As well known, this has l...

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...nformation retrieval and extraction [24,6,34,54], knowledge management and organization [40], agent-based systems design 1 . Current applications areas are disparate, including enterprise integration =-=[22,46]-=-, natural language translation [30,33], medicine [16], mechanical engineering [10], standardization of product knowledge [8,4,26], electronic commerce [32], geographic information systems [12], legal ...

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...lds as diverse as knowledge engineering [20,45,15,18], knowledge representation [23,2,42], qualitative modelling [19,9,13], language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling =-=[3,53]-=-, information integration [55,7,35], object-oriented analysis [51,39], information retrieval and extraction [24,6,34,54], knowledge management and organization [40], agent-based systems design 1 . Cur...

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...neering [20,45,15,18], knowledge representation [23,2,42], qualitative modelling [19,9,13], language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration =-=[55,7,35]-=-, object-oriented analysis [51,39], information retrieval and extraction [24,6,34,54], knowledge management and organization [40], agent-based systems design 1 . Current applications areas are dispara...

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...gence, Computational Linguistics, and Database Theory. In particular, its importance is being recognized in research fields as diverse as knowledge engineering [20,45,15,18], knowledge representation =-=[23,2,42]-=-, qualitative modelling [19,9,13], language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-oriented analysis [51,39], information ...

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...gence, Computational Linguistics, and Database Theory. In particular, its importance is being recognized in research fields as diverse as knowledge engineering [20,45,15,18], knowledge representation =-=[23,2,42]-=-, qualitative modelling [19,9,13], language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-oriented analysis [51,39], information ...

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...19,9,13], language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-oriented analysis [51,39], information retrieval and extraction =-=[24,6,34,54]-=-, knowledge management and organization [40], agent-based systems design 1 . Current applications areas are disparate, including enterprise integration [22,46], natural language translation [30,33], m...

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...ontext, we can distinguish two different scenarios. In the first scenario, we have a set of reusable ontologies at our disposal, organized in an ontology library containing domain and task ontologies =-=[49]-=-. In the secondsscenario, the degree of reusability is very limited, as we only have a very generic ontology, consisting of coarse domain-level distinctions among the basic entities of the world and m...

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...neering [20,45,15,18], knowledge representation [23,2,42], qualitative modelling [19,9,13], language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration =-=[55,7,35]-=-, object-oriented analysis [51,39], information retrieval and extraction [24,6,34,54], knowledge management and organization [40], agent-based systems design 1 . Current applications areas are dispara...

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...4,6,34,54], knowledge management and organization [40], agent-based systems design 1 . Current applications areas are disparate, including enterprise integration [22,46], natural language translation =-=[30,33]-=-, medicine [16], mechanical engineering [10], standardization of product knowledge [8,4,26], electronic commerce [32], geographic information systems [12], legal information systems 2 , biological inf...

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...4,6,34,54], knowledge management and organization [40], agent-based systems design 1 . Current applications areas are disparate, including enterprise integration [22,46], natural language translation =-=[30,33]-=-, medicine [16], mechanical engineering [10], standardization of product knowledge [8,4,26], electronic commerce [32], geographic information systems [12], legal information systems 2 , biological inf...

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...nd protects him from being bothered too much by implementation details. Unfortunately, the availability of off the shelf ontologies to be used in this way is today extremely limited (see for instance =-=[44]-=- for an example of reuse of an ontology of physical measures). In my opinion, the reason is that these ontologies are not general enough to be effectively specialized for various applications. Moreove...

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...19,9,13], language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-oriented analysis [51,39], information retrieval and extraction =-=[24,6,34,54]-=-, knowledge management and organization [40], agent-based systems design 1 . Current applications areas are disparate, including enterprise integration [22,46], natural language translation [30,33], m...

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...neering [20,45,15,18], knowledge representation [23,2,42], qualitative modelling [19,9,13], language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration =-=[55,7,35]-=-, object-oriented analysis [51,39], information retrieval and extraction [24,6,34,54], knowledge management and organization [40], agent-based systems design 1 . Current applications areas are dispara...

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... and Database Theory. In particular, its importance is being recognized in research fields as diverse as knowledge engineering [20,45,15,18], knowledge representation [23,2,42], qualitative modelling =-=[19,9,13]-=-, language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-oriented analysis [51,39], information retrieval and extraction [24,6,34...

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...lting conceptual model can be represented as a computer processable ontology and from there mapped to concrete target platforms. These aspects have been extensively studied in the ESPRIT IDEA project =-=[14], es-=-pecially for what concerns the mapping of the “knowledge specification” (the ontology) to schemes for many different types of databases (relational, object-oriented, deductive, active). Another ex...

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...resentation [23,2,42], qualitative modelling [19,9,13], language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-oriented analysis =-=[51,39]-=-, information retrieval and extraction [24,6,34,54], knowledge management and organization [40], agent-based systems design 1 . Current applications areas are disparate, including enterprise integrati...

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...tion [22,46], natural language translation [30,33], medicine [16], mechanical engineering [10], standardization of product knowledge [8,4,26], electronic commerce [32], geographic information systems =-=[12]-=-, legal information systems 2 , biological information systems 3 . I shall use the generic term information systems, in its broadest sense, to collectively refer to these fields and application areas....

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...ng a specific role in Artificial Intelligence, Computational Linguistics, and Database Theory. In particular, its importance is being recognized in research fields as diverse as knowledge engineering =-=[20,45,15,18]-=-, knowledge representation [23,2,42], qualitative modelling [19,9,13], language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-ori...

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...linary approach in the practice of ontological engineering, underlying in particular the role played by formal ontology. Since this topic is going to be addressed in more detail in the present volume =-=[41,50], I -=-will avoid here any further comment. Rather, I will first propose the most recent elaboration of the clarification work on the way the term “ontology” is being used in computer science originally ...

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...on on possible worlds. The present version is the correct one. The point is that a compatible model must pick up a single possible world. 11 This statement clarifies a possible confusion arising from =-=[25], wher-=-e I stated that the definition “an ontology is an explicit, partial account of a conceptualization” can be rephrased as “an ontology is an explicit, partial account of the intended models of a l...

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... and Database Theory. In particular, its importance is being recognized in research fields as diverse as knowledge engineering [20,45,15,18], knowledge representation [23,2,42], qualitative modelling =-=[19,9,13]-=-, language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-oriented analysis [51,39], information retrieval and extraction [24,6,34...

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...19,9,13], language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-oriented analysis [51,39], information retrieval and extraction =-=[24,6,34,54]-=-, knowledge management and organization [40], agent-based systems design 1 . Current applications areas are disparate, including enterprise integration [22,46], natural language translation [30,33], m...

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...used equally profitably for IS re-engineering, in order to increase reuse and maintainability. In this way large software investments done in the past can be protected and leveraged. See for instance =-=[38]-=- for a good example of using ontological principles for systems reengineering. 3.1.2 Using an ontology at run time. We must distinguish here an ontology-aware IS from an ontology-driven IS: in the fir...

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...gn [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-oriented analysis [51,39], information retrieval and extraction [24,6,34,54], knowledge management and organization =-=[40]-=-, agent-based systems design 1 . Current applications areas are disparate, including enterprise integration [22,46], natural language translation [30,33], medicine [16], mechanical engineering [10], s...

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...lar, its importance is being recognized in research fields as diverse as knowledge engineering [20,45,15,18], knowledge representation [23,2,42], qualitative modelling [19,9,13], language engineering =-=[31,5]-=-, database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-oriented analysis [51,39], information retrieval and extraction [24,6,34,54], knowledge management an...

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... and Database Theory. In particular, its importance is being recognized in research fields as diverse as knowledge engineering [20,45,15,18], knowledge representation [23,2,42], qualitative modelling =-=[19,9,13]-=-, language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-oriented analysis [51,39], information retrieval and extraction [24,6,34...

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...19,9,13], language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-oriented analysis [51,39], information retrieval and extraction =-=[24,6,34,54]-=-, knowledge management and organization [40], agent-based systems design 1 . Current applications areas are disparate, including enterprise integration [22,46], natural language translation [30,33], m...

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...lds as diverse as knowledge engineering [20,45,15,18], knowledge representation [23,2,42], qualitative modelling [19,9,13], language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling =-=[3,53]-=-, information integration [55,7,35], object-oriented analysis [51,39], information retrieval and extraction [24,6,34,54], knowledge management and organization [40], agent-based systems design 1 . Cur...

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...rent applications areas are disparate, including enterprise integration [22,46], natural language translation [30,33], medicine [16], mechanical engineering [10], standardization of product knowledge =-=[8,4,26]-=-, electronic commerce [32], geographic information systems [12], legal information systems 2 , biological information systems 3 . I shall use the generic term information systems, in its broadest sens...

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...linary approach in the practice of ontological engineering, underlying in particular the role played by formal ontology. Since this topic is going to be addressed in more detail in the present volume =-=[41,50], I -=-will avoid here any further comment. Rather, I will first propose the most recent elaboration of the clarification work on the way the term “ontology” is being used in computer science originally ...

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...face is vocabulary detaching: the user is free to adopt his own natural language terms, which are mapped (after a possible disambiguation step) to the IS vocabulary with the help of the ontology. See =-=[28]-=- for an example of this use. 13 URL: http://smi-web.stanford.edu/projects/prot-nt/documentation/s3.2.3 Using an ontology for the application program component. Application programs are still an import...

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...the requirement analysis and conceptual modelling phase, especially if integrated with lexical resources like WordNet [36] in order to support the analysis of natural language informal specifications =-=[29,1,11,47]-=-. The resulting conceptual model can be represented as a computer processable ontology and from there mapped to concrete target platforms. These aspects have been extensively studied in the ESPRIT IDE...

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...lar, its importance is being recognized in research fields as diverse as knowledge engineering [20,45,15,18], knowledge representation [23,2,42], qualitative modelling [19,9,13], language engineering =-=[31,5]-=-, database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-oriented analysis [51,39], information retrieval and extraction [24,6,34,54], knowledge management an...

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...sparate, including enterprise integration [22,46], natural language translation [30,33], medicine [16], mechanical engineering [10], standardization of product knowledge [8,4,26], electronic commerce =-=[32]-=-, geographic information systems [12], legal information systems 2 , biological information systems 3 . I shall use the generic term information systems, in its broadest sense, to collectively refer t...

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...ng a specific role in Artificial Intelligence, Computational Linguistics, and Database Theory. In particular, its importance is being recognized in research fields as diverse as knowledge engineering =-=[20,45,15,18]-=-, knowledge representation [23,2,42], qualitative modelling [19,9,13], language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-ori...

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...rent applications areas are disparate, including enterprise integration [22,46], natural language translation [30,33], medicine [16], mechanical engineering [10], standardization of product knowledge =-=[8,4,26]-=-, electronic commerce [32], geographic information systems [12], legal information systems 2 , biological information systems 3 . I shall use the generic term information systems, in its broadest sens...

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...dge management and organization [40], agent-based systems design 1 . Current applications areas are disparate, including enterprise integration [22,46], natural language translation [30,33], medicine =-=[16]-=-, mechanical engineering [10], standardization of product knowledge [8,4,26], electronic commerce [32], geographic information systems [12], legal information systems 2 , biological information system...

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...the requirement analysis and conceptual modelling phase, especially if integrated with lexical resources like WordNet [36] in order to support the analysis of natural language informal specifications =-=[29,1,11,47]-=-. The resulting conceptual model can be represented as a computer processable ontology and from there mapped to concrete target platforms. These aspects have been extensively studied in the ESPRIT IDE...

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...evelopment phase will be a separate component, namely an application ontology like the one depicted in Fig. 4, which can be seen as a specialization of both a domain ontology and a task ontology. See =-=[25,48]-=- for a discussion of the relationships between an application ontology and an ontology library. An important benefit of using an ontology at development time is that it enables the developer to practi...

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...resentation [23,2,42], qualitative modelling [19,9,13], language engineering [31,5], database design [11,47], information modelling [3,53], information integration [55,7,35], object-oriented analysis =-=[51,39]-=-, information retrieval and extraction [24,6,34,54], knowledge management and organization [40], agent-based systems design 1 . Current applications areas are disparate, including enterprise integrati...

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...rent applications areas are disparate, including enterprise integration [22,46], natural language translation [30,33], medicine [16], mechanical engineering [10], standardization of product knowledge =-=[8,4,26]-=-, electronic commerce [32], geographic information systems [12], legal information systems 2 , biological information systems 3 . I shall use the generic term information systems, in its broadest sens...