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...s the time course of processing as well as the effects of learning. This was accomplished by combining the cascade mechanism described by McCleUand (1979) with the backpropagation learning algorithm (=-=Rumelhart, Hinton, & Williams, 1986-=-). The model can simulate performance in the standard Stroop task, as well as aspects of performance in variants of this task that manipulate stimulus-onset asynchrony, response set, and degree of pra...

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...her models, such as one described by Hunt and Lansman (1986; also, see Reed & Hunt, 1986). Their model is based on a production-system architecture that is a modified version of the one used in ACT* (=-=Anderson, 1983-=-). Their model distinguishes between controlled and automatic processing on the basis of the manner in which one production influences the firing of others. In controlled processing, one production ac...

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...tomaticity. Perhaps the most extensively studied tasks have been the search tasks of Shiffrin and Schneider (1977; Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977), priming tasks (e.g., Neely, 1977), and the Stroop task (=-=Stroop, 1935-=-). The interpretation of such studies often has relied on the assumption that automaticity is an all-or-none phenomenon. However, recent research has begun to question this assumption (e.g., Kahneman ...

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...ies have shown that practice produces gradual, continuous increases in processing speed (e.g., Blackburn, 1936; Bryan & Harter, 1899; Logan, 1979; Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977) that follow a power law (=-=Anderson, 1982-=-; Kolers, 1976; Logan, 1988; Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981). MacLeod and Dunbar (1988) also examined this variable in their study. They continued to train subjects on the shape-naming task with 144 trials...

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... Stroop-like effects has been to consider the role of attention in processing. This approach draws on the distinction between automatic and controlled processes (Cattell, 1886; Posner & Snyder, 1975; =-=Shitfrin & Schneider, 1977-=-). Automatic processes are fast, do not require attention for their execution, and therefore can occur involuntarily. In contrast, controlled processes are relatively slow, require attention, and ther...

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...ng that color naming is a less practiced task. These effects are highly robust, and similar findings have been observed in a diversity of paradigms using various stimuli (for reviews, see Dyer, 1973; =-=MacLeod, 1989-=-). The Stroop effect illustrates a fundamental aspect of attention: People are able to ignore some features of the environment but not others. The simplest explanation for the Stroop effect is that th...

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...ntion for their execution. Performance of novel tasks is typically considered to rely on controlled processing; however, with extensive practice, performance of some tasks can become automatic (e.g., =-=LaBerge & Samuels, 1974-=-; Logan, 1979; Posner & Snyder, 1975; Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977; Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977). 1 Many tasks have been used to examine the nature of attention and automaticity. Perhaps the most extensi...

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... of novel tasks is typically considered to rely on controlled processing; however, with extensive practice, performance of some tasks can become automatic (e.g., LaBerge & Samuels, 1974; Logan, 1979; =-=Posner & Snyder, 1975-=-; Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977; Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977). 1 Many tasks have been used to examine the nature of attention and automaticity. Perhaps the most extensively studied tasks have been the sea...

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...e the information arriving along one of them. This is one of the primary functions of attention within this framework and is consistent with the views on attention expressed by several other authors (=-=Kahneman & Treisman, 1984-=-; Logan, 1980; Treisman, 1960). In our system, modulation occurs by altering the responsiveness of the processing units in a pathway. In this way, attention can be used to control individual processes...

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...ew that interference effects arise whenever two processes rely on a common resource or set of resources has been referred to as the multiple-resources view (e.g., Allport, 1982; Hirst & Kalmar, 1987; =-=Navon & Gopher, 1979-=-; Wickens, 1984). Logan (1985) summarized this position succinctly: Different tasks may depend on different resources, and dual-task interference occurs only when the tasks share common resources. Thu...

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... a weighted sum of the inputs it receives. Networks that rely on linear update rules such as this, even if they are composed of multiple layers, suffer from fundamental computational limitations (see =-=Rumelhart, Hinton, & McClelland, 1986-=-, for a discussion). To overcome this problem, a network must have at least one layer of units between the input and output units that make use of a nonlinear relation between input and output. Anothe...

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... stimuli" and "generic responses" that constitute learning in such systems (Logan, 1988). This criticism applies primarily to theories using discrete, or local, representations of stimuli. Elsewhere (=-=McClelland & Rumelhart, 1985-=-), it has been shown that this limitation of the strengthbased approach can be overcome with the use of distributed representations. In such systems, memory for an event is not encoded in a single con...

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...oop, 1935). The interpretation of such studies often has relied on the assumption that automaticity is an all-or-none phenomenon. However, recent research has begun to question this assumption (e.g., =-=Kahneman & Henik, 1981-=-; MacLeod & Dunbar, 1988). An alternative conception is that automaticity is a matter of degree. For example, Kahnei Some authors have argued that certain automatic processes are innate. For example, ...

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...them. This is one of the primary functions of attention within this framework and is consistent with the views on attention expressed by several other authors (Kahneman & Treisman, 1984; Logan, 1980; =-=Treisman, 1960-=-). In our system, modulation occurs by altering the responsiveness of the processing units in a pathway. In this way, attention can be used to control individual processes. However, this does not nece...

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...tation of such studies often has relied on the assumption that automaticity is an all-or-none phenomenon. However, recent research has begun to question this assumption (e.g., Kahneman & Henik, 1981; =-=MacLeod & Dunbar, 1988-=-). An alternative conception is that automaticity is a matter of degree. For example, Kahnei Some authors have argued that certain automatic processes are innate. For example, Hasher and Zacks (1979) ...

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...re of indirect processing. Although PDP research in this area is just beginning, several PDP models that use such mechanisms have already begun to appear (e.g., Hinton & Plaut, 1987; Schneider, 1985; =-=Schneider & Detweiler, 1987-=-). Attention and the Control of Processing We have argued that an important difference heCw~n our direct-indirect distinction and the traditional dichotomy be-CONTROL OF AUTOMATIC PROCESSES 355 tween...

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...tely 350-450 ms, whereas the time to name a color patch or a row of colored Xs is 550-650 ms. Thus, word reading is approximately 200 ms faster than color naming (cf. Cattell, 1886; Dyer, 1973; M. O. =-=Glaser & Glaser, 1982-=-). Word reading is not affected by ink. color. Ink color has virtuCONTROL OF AUTOMATIC PROCESSES 341 ally no effect on the amount of time needed to read the word. That is, reaction times to read the w...

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.... Performance of novel tasks is typically considered to rely on controlled processing; however, with extensive practice, performance of some tasks can become automatic (e.g., LaBerge & Samuels, 1974; =-=Logan, 1979-=-; Posner & Snyder, 1975; Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977; Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977). 1 Many tasks have been used to examine the nature of attention and automaticity. Perhaps the most extensively studied ...

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...along one of them. This is one of the primary functions of attention within this framework and is consistent with the views on attention expressed by several other authors (Kahneman & Treisman, 1984; =-=Logan, 1980-=-; Treisman, 1960). In our system, modulation occurs by altering the responsiveness of the processing units in a pathway. In this way, attention can be used to control individual processes. However, th...

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...select a particular set of responses at the output level of the network. This simulation provides an account for response-set effects that have been observed in empirical studies (e.g., Dunbar, 1985; =-=Klein, 1964-=-; Proctor, 1978). Response-set effects reflect the fact that information related to a potential response leads to more interference (and facilitation) than information unrelated to the task. In the st...

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...e literature on attention, automaticity, and interference is discussed. Introduction The nature of attention has been one of the central concerns of experimental psychology since its inception (e.g., =-=Cattell, 1886-=-; Pillsbury, 1908). James (1890) emphasized the selective aspects of attention and regarded attention as a process of "taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seems ...

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...time for naming the ink color relative to the control condition. The amount of interference is variable but is usually approximately 100 ms (e.g., Dunbar & MacLeod, 1984; M. O. Glaser & Glaser, 1982; =-=Kahneman & Chajczyk, 1983-=-). This finding is also extremely robust, and nearly all subjects show the effect. Even when the word and the ink color are presented in different spatial locations (e.g., the word is placed above a c...

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...ported by the following evidence. Continuous Nature of Speed of Processing Numerous studies have shown that practice produces gradual, continuous increases in processing speed (e.g., Blackburn, 1936; =-=Bryan & Harter, 1899-=-; Logan, 1979; Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977) that follow a power law (Anderson, 1982; Kolers, 1976; Logan, 1988; Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981). MacLeod and Dunbar (1988) also examined this variable in thei...

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...task (cf. Dyer, 1973). The general view that interference effects arise whenever two processes rely on a common resource or set of resources has been referred to as the multiple-resources view (e.g., =-=Allport, 1982-=-; Hirst & Kalmar, 1987; Navon & Gopher, 1979; Wickens, 1984). Logan (1985) summarized this position succinctly: Different tasks may depend on different resources, and dual-task interference occurs onl...

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... concerns the notions of processing resources and capacity limitations. The model instantiates processes similar to the multiple-resources view that has been expressed by others (e.g., Allport, 1982; =-=Logan, 1985-=-; Navon & Gopher, 1979; Wickens, 1984) and to the notion of functional cerebral distance described by Kinsbourne and Hicks (1978). These theories share the view that performance of a task typically in...

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...hat practice produces gradual, continuous increases in processing speed (e.g., Blackburn, 1936; Bryan & Harter, 1899; Logan, 1979; Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977) that follow a power law (Anderson, 1982; =-=Kolers, 1976-=-; Logan, 1988; Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981). MacLeod and Dunbar (1988) also examined this variable in their study. They continued to train subjects on the shape-naming task with 144 trials per stimulus ...

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...t units is also consistent with the view that subjects are less able to allocate attention selectively to different representations within a module than to representations in different modules (e.g., =-=Navon & Miller, 1987-=-; Wickens, 1984). Table 3 shows data from Dunbar's (1985) experiment as well as the results of the simulation. In both cases, stimuli that were not in the response set produced less interference than ...

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...less stable, nature of indirect processing. Although PDP research in this area is just beginning, several PDP models that use such mechanisms have already begun to appear (e.g., Hinton & Plaut, 1987; =-=Schneider, 1985-=-; Schneider & Detweiler, 1987). Attention and the Control of Processing We have argued that an important difference heCw~n our direct-indirect distinction and the traditional dichotomy be-CONTROL OF ...

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... 1973). The general view that interference effects arise whenever two processes rely on a common resource or set of resources has been referred to as the multiple-resources view (e.g., Allport, 1982; =-=Hirst & Kalmar, 1987-=-; Navon & Gopher, 1979; Wickens, 1984). Logan (1985) summarized this position succinctly: Different tasks may depend on different resources, and dual-task interference occurs only when the tasks share...

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...n the ink color appears before the word, it does not interfere with word reading (M. O. Glaser & Glaser, 1982). Only when the task is changed radically will the ink color interfere with word reading (=-=Dunbar & MacLeod, 1984-=-; Gumenik & Glass, 1970). Words can influence color naming. A conflicting word produces a substantial increase in reaction time for naming the ink color relative to the control condition. The amount o...

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...show the effect. Even when the word and the ink color are presented in different spatial locations (e.g., the word is placed above a color patch), the word still interferes with naming the ink color (=-=Gatti & Egeth, 1978-=-; Kahneman & Henik, 1981). In the congruent condition, the word facilitates ink naming, producing a decrease in reaction time relative to the control condition (Hintzman ct al., 1972). The amount of f...

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... of attention. The proposal that direct processes are subject to attentional control is quite different from the proposal that a particular task is subject to attentional control. Thus, others (e.g., =-=Shiffrin, 1988-=-) have attempted to explain the fact that automatic processing tasks such as word reading are subject to attentional control by arguing that behavior reties on numerous processes, some of which are au...

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...units. In this respect, it is one of a general class of models that explain learning in terms of a strengthening process. An alternative approach to learning and automaticity is instance based (e.g., =-=Hintzman, 1986-=-; Logan, 1988). According to instance theory, each exposure to a stimulus is encoded separately in memory. In Logan's (1988) model, both encoding as well as the retrieval of stimulus-related instances...

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..., Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977; Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977), or other tasks involving selective attention. Many of these phenomena have begun to be explored productively within the PDP framework (e.g., =-=Mozer, 1988-=-; Phaff, 1986; Schneider & Detweiler, 1987 ). For example, Mozer (1988) has addressed the spatial allocation of attention using PDP mechanisms similar to the ones we have described, By introducing a n...

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... naming~ and the picture had no effect on word reading (for similar studies, cf. Fraisse, 1969; W. R. Glaser& DfingelColor Naming: 0 Conlllctlng Word A Conflk:Ung Shape 1~.6 0'.8 1'.0 hoff, 1984; and =-=Lupker & Katz, 1981-=-). In Dunbar's experiment, there were five pictures of animals (horse, hear, rabbit, sheep, and cat ~6) and thus five possible responses. Some of the word stimuli used were potential responses (e:g., ...

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... attention, automaticity, and interference is discussed. Introduction The nature of attention has been one of the central concerns of experimental psychology since its inception (e.g., Cattell, 1886; =-=Pillsbury, 1908-=-). James (1890) emphasized the selective aspects of attention and regarded attention as a process of "taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seems several simultane...

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...task. This is supported by the following evidence. Continuous Nature of Speed of Processing Numerous studies have shown that practice produces gradual, continuous increases in processing speed (e.g., =-=Blackburn, 1936-=-; Bryan & Harter, 1899; Logan, 1979; Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977) that follow a power law (Anderson, 1982; Kolers, 1976; Logan, 1988; Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981). MacLeod and Dunbar (1988) also examined...

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...the negative bias for intermediate units in the disattended pathway (-4.0) is consistent with empirical data demonstrating that selection by stimulus set is easier than selection by response set (cf. =-=Broadbent, 1970-=-; Kahneman & Treisman, 1984; Keren, 1976). The difference in bias between intermediate and output units is also consistent with the view that subjects are less able to allocate attention selectively t...

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...units. In this respect, it is one of a general class of models that explain learning in terms of a strengthening process. An alternative approach to learning and automaticity is instance based (e.g., =-=Hintzman, 1986-=-; Logan, 1988). According to instance theory, each exposure to a stimulus is encoded separately in memory. In Logan's (1988) model, both encoding as well as the retrieval of stimulus-related instances...

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...lor-naming task: Picture naming was slower than was word reading, the word both interfered with and facilitated picture naming~ and the picture had no effect on word reading (for similar studies, cf. =-=Fraisse, 1969-=-; W. R. Glaser& DfingelColor Naming: 0 Conlllctlng Word A Conflk:Ung Shape 1~.6 0'.8 1'.0 hoff, 1984; and Lupker & Katz, 1981). In Dunbar's experiment, there were five pictures of animals (horse, hear...

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...ent of the ability to produce interference accompanied by a reduction in susceptibility to interference (MacLeod & Dunbar, 1988), and a reduction of the requirements for attention as learning occurs (=-=Logan, 1978-=-; Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977). The model provides a common explanation for these findings in terms of the strength of processing pathways. This account goes beyond many other theories of automaticity ...

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...ess, the model also incorporates variability in the response mechanism. One successful way of modeling response variability has been to assume that the choice of a response is based on a random walk (=-=Link, 1975-=-) or a diffusion process (Rateliff, 1978). In our adaptation of these ideas, we associate each possible response with an evidence accumulator that receives input from the out338 J. COHEN, K. DUNBAR, ...

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...icular set of responses at the output level of the network. This simulation provides an account for response-set effects that have been observed in empirical studies (e.g., Dunbar, 1985; Klein, 1964; =-=Proctor, 1978-=-). Response-set effects reflect the fact that information related to a potential response leads to more interference (and facilitation) than information unrelated to the task. In the standard Stroop e...

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...ition, the word facilitates ink naming, producing a decrease in reaction time relative to the control condition (Hintzman ct al., 1972). The amount of facilitation can range from approximately 20 ms (=-=Regan, 1978-=-) to approximately 50 ms (Kahneman & Chajczyk, 1983). There is less facilitation than interference. Congruent stimuli have not been used as extensively as conflict stimuli, but the general finding is ...

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...to account for the relationship between practice effects and automaticity. In the context of the Stroop task, investigators have proposed that word reading is more highly practiced than color naming (=-=Brown, 1915-=-; MacLeod & Dunbar, 1988; Posner & Snyder, 1975). To model this difference in practice, we gave the network differential amounts of training on the word and color patterns. Every word pattern was pres...

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...before the word, it does not interfere with word reading (M. O. Glaser & Glaser, 1982). Only when the task is changed radically will the ink color interfere with word reading (Dunbar & MacLeod, 1984; =-=Gumenik & Glass, 1970-=-). Words can influence color naming. A conflicting word produces a substantial increase in reaction time for naming the ink color relative to the control condition. The amount of interference is varia...

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...m was used to select a particular set of responses at the output level of the network. This simulation provides an account for response-set effects that have been observed in empirical studies (e.g., =-=Dunbar, 1985-=-; Klein, 1964; Proctor, 1978). Response-set effects reflect the fact that information related to a potential response leads to more interference (and facilitation) than information unrelated to the ta...

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...rential allocation corresponded to the hypothesis that, during testing, subjects allocate attention maximally to relevant responses and disattend to irrelevant responses, although not completely (cf. =-=Deutsch, 1977-=-; Kahneman & Treisman, 1984). The amount of negative bias applied to nonresponse items was chosen to capture the empirical data as accurately as possible. However, the fact that the size that differen...

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... Shiffrin, 1977; Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977), or other tasks involving selective attention. Many of these phenomena have begun to be explored productively within the PDP framework (e.g., Mozer, 1988; =-=Phaff, 1986-=-; Schneider & Detweiler, 1987 ). For example, Mozer (1988) has addressed the spatial allocation of attention using PDP mechanisms similar to the ones we have described, By introducing a network of uni...

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...roduces gradual, continuous increases in processing speed (e.g., Blackburn, 1936; Bryan & Harter, 1899; Logan, 1979; Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977) that follow a power law (Anderson, 1982; Kolers, 1976; =-=Logan, 1988-=-; Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981). MacLeod and Dunbar (1988) also examined this variable in their study. They continued to train subjects on the shape-naming task with 144 trials per stimulus daily for 20 ...

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...ted a similar view of capacity limitations in terms of cross talk within modules (also see Navon & Miller, 1987). Although we have not pursued a quantitative analysis of capacity in this article (see =-=Rosenfeld & Touretzky, 1988-=-, for an example of how this can be done in PDP systems), the model showed that when information from two sources converged on a common module (the response module of the network), interference occurr...