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... development of systems that address the most promising application areas as defined in section 4. Finally, (4) theories of attention in natural language and human communication (Argyle & Cook, 1976; =-=Clark, 1996-=-, pp. 274-282; Grosz & Sidner, 1990) may provide useful insights for the definition and design of Attention Aware Systems and could be further explored with this objective in mind. 6 Conclusion Attent...

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...essing of stimuli especially when they are temporally near and conceptually related to the target stimulus. Classic examples of interference are negative priming (Tipper, 1985) and the Stroop effect (=-=Stroop, 1935-=-). Negative priming is an effect by which "it is more difficult to select a stimulus, belonging to a given category, for the control of action, if that same category of object was actively ignored on ...

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...erceptual operations necessary to elaborate them. A further contribution to the understanding of preattentive and attentive processes comes from Treisman's feature integration theory (Treisman, 1998; =-=Treisman & Gelade, 1980-=-) developed from her studies based on visual modality. She proposes that parallel preattentive processes simultaneously extract essential features of the visual stimuli (e.g. colour and orientation). ...

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...rolled voluntarily by the subject, or it can be captured by some external event. The former type of control mechanism is referred to as endogenous, top-down, or goal driven attention (Arvidson, 2003; =-=Posner, 1980-=-; Yantis, 1998). An example of endogenous attentional mechanism is the attention you are paying to this page as you are reading. The latter type of mechanism is referred to as exogenous, bottomup, or ...

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... selected? In other words, is it possible to break down the selection process into sub-processes, or stages? The first answer to this question came from Broadbent's early perceptual selection theory (=-=Broadbent, 1958-=-) which proposed that selection takes place in two stages: a pre-attentive one, and an attentive one. First, a parallel (several stimuli may be processed at the same time) preattentive stage encodes s...

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...ch & Deutsch, 1963; Duncan, 1980; Norman, 1969)) proposed a late selection theory where all stimuli are analysed but only pertinent stimuli are selected for awareness and memorisation. Other studies (=-=Neisser, 1967-=-; Pashler, 1998; Treisman, 1960, 1969) proposed modified early selection theories where non-attended stimuli are not completely filtered out but their contribution to the attentive stage is somehow li...

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...rch Group, 2002 - 2005)) or simply proposed (see for example (Hewett, 2000)).s2.3.1 Connectionist models of learning and attention: attention and intentionality Grossberg's Adaptive Resonance Theory (=-=Grossberg, 1976-=-a, 1976b, 1999) explains how attentional processes are integrated into more general processes guiding human behaviour. The two main questions addressed by this work are, (1) how we (humans) may keep l...

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...963; Duncan, 1980; Norman, 1969)) proposed a late selection theory where all stimuli are analysed but only pertinent stimuli are selected for awareness and memorisation. Other studies (Neisser, 1967; =-=Pashler, 1998-=-; Treisman, 1960, 1969) proposed modified early selection theories where non-attended stimuli are not completely filtered out but their contribution to the attentive stage is somehow limited. Treisman...

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... interruptions could therefore be beneficial only if the interruption times can be predicted by the user. Finally one more result showing how attention switches may affect performance is reported in (=-=Rogers & Monsell, 1995-=-). The authors demonstrate that in task alternation, stimuli that are irrelevant for the current task may induce higher Response Times (RT) and task switching time if they are related to the currently...

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...at address the most promising application areas as defined in section 4. Finally, (4) theories of attention in natural language and human communication (Argyle & Cook, 1976; Clark, 1996, pp. 274-282; =-=Grosz & Sidner, 1990-=-) may provide useful insights for the definition and design of Attention Aware Systems and could be further explored with this objective in mind. 6 Conclusion Attention Aware Systems will be crucial f...

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...e, otherwise, these operations are postponed until the onset of the next task stimulus. This hypothesis was based on the results of some experiments by Roger and Monsell (1995) and by Allport et al. (=-=Allport, Styles, & Hsieh, 1994-=-) demonstrating that, under certain conditions, increasing the length of RSI decreases switching times costs only if the RSI is constant. These observations imply that increasing the time between atte...

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...timuli and the perceptual operations necessary to elaborate them. A further contribution to the understanding of preattentive and attentive processes comes from Treisman's feature integration theory (=-=Treisman, 1998-=-; Treisman & Gelade, 1980) developed from her studies based on visual modality. She proposes that parallel preattentive processes simultaneously extract essential features of the visual stimuli (e.g. ...

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...ing the Caps Lock key to type uppercase letters and holding the shift key to the same effect are significantly different. The first case establishes a mode; the second case [establishes a quasimode]"(=-=Raskin, 2000-=-, p.55). Experiments have demonstrated that quasimode induce less errors than modes.sreviews the work done to define the EPIC architecture (Kieras, Meyer, Ballas, & Lauber, 2000), a computation model ...

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...y Broadbent's theory (e.g. Lewis (1970) and MacKay (1973) reported experiments demonstrating semantic processing of unattended stimuli). As a response to these findings some authors (see for example (=-=Deutsch & Deutsch, 1963-=-; Duncan, 1980; Norman, 1969)) proposed a late selection theory where all stimuli are analysed but only pertinent stimuli are selected for awareness and memorisation. Other studies (Neisser, 1967; Pas...

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... sensory cues II Whether this is the case also in situations of activities that are not "task-oriented" can be debated but we will not delve into this subject in this paper.ssuch as gesture tracking (=-=Hinckley, Pierce, Sinclair, & Horvitz, 2000-=-). Other examples of collection of multiple sensory cues are the system proposed by Stiefelhagen that tracks head pose and acoustic information about who is speaking in a meeting (Stiefelhagen, 2002),...

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....sreviews the work done to define the EPIC architecture (Kieras, Meyer, Ballas, & Lauber, 2000), a computation model of human multi-task performance, and other theories following the EPIC principles (=-=Rubinstein, Meyer, & Evans, 2001-=-). The stated goal of the EPIC project is to simulate human-system interaction in a test-bed modelling human performance and capable of rapidly assessing the quality of an interface. Although the clas...

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..., however, that attention has not often been prioritised as a specific subject of research in HCI (with some notable exceptions including the Attentional User Interface project at Microsoft research (=-=Horvitz, Kadie, Paek, & Hovel, 2003-=-)). As a consequence, much of the work relevant to the development of attention-aware systems appears in the context of other research frames. This is especially the case as attention processes are re...

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.... Lewis (1970) and MacKay (1973) reported experiments demonstrating semantic processing of unattended stimuli). As a response to these findings some authors (see for example (Deutsch & Deutsch, 1963; =-=Duncan, 1980-=-; Norman, 1969)) proposed a late selection theory where all stimuli are analysed but only pertinent stimuli are selected for awareness and memorisation. Other studies (Neisser, 1967; Pashler, 1998; Tr...

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...an, 1960, 1969) proposed modified early selection theories where non-attended stimuli are not completely filtered out but their contribution to the attentive stage is somehow limited. Treisman (1960; =-=Treisman, 1969-=-), for example, proposed that unattended stimuli might make it to the second serial, attentive stage, but in an attenuated mode. These attenuated stimuli would then be elaborated on only if they had a...

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...dicator of attentional focus, it cannot be taken as a certain indicator. Recent cognitive psychology results in change blindness ("failure to see large changes that normally would be noticed easily" (=-=Simons & Rensink, 2005-=-, p.16)) support the hypothesis that attention is symmetrically distributed around the fixation point (Simons & Rensink, 2005). However, Rayner observes that one may shift the point of visual attentio...

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...inty about users' focus will always remain. For this reason, dealing with uncertainty remains an important aspect of users' attention detection. A set of tools included in the Interruption Workbench (=-=Horvitz & Apacible, 2003-=-) implement a promising approach allowing the capture of events in the user's environment that are later used to build statistical models of user's interruptibility in various situations. Users are as...

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...eral types of information and evaluate if, when, and how to make it available to the user. Notification systems have been studied in a wide variety of application domains including messaging systems (=-=Cutrell, Czerwinski, & Horvitz, 2001-=-; Czerwinski, Cutrell, & Horvitz, 2000; Horvitz, Kadie, Paek, & Hovel, 2003), alerting in military operations (Obermayer & Nugent, 2000), and shared document annotation (Brush, Bargeron, Gupta, & Grud...

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...d by (Broadbent, 1958). On this basis they stipulate that "irrelevant information will be excluded from processing only if the prioritised relevant processing exhausts all of the available capacity" (=-=Lavie & Tsal, 1994-=-, p. 185). This implies that if the available perceptual capacity is not exhausted by the main stimuli, distractors will also be processed. In this account the locus of selection depends on the load o...

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...om destabilizing our previously learned memories. Learned top-down expectations [..] focusing attention [allow us to learn] quickly and stably without catastrophically forgetting […] past knowledge" (=-=Grossberg, 1999-=-, pp. 1 and 10). Whenever a matching between the sensorial input and the top-down expectations is achieved the system enters a resonance state. This is due to the input activating the expectation, whi...

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...ons may generate stress (Bailey, Konstan, & Carlis, 2001; Zijlstra, Roe, Leonova, & Krediet, 1999) and hinder in various ways the performance of the primary task - see for example (Franke, Daniels, & =-=McFarlane, 2002-=-; McFarlane & Latorella, 2002; Nagata, 2003; Speier, Vessey, & Valacich, 2003). As emphasised by McFarlane and Latorella (2002) the implementation of any semiautonomous or user multitasking technology...

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... an effect by which "it is more difficult to select a stimulus, belonging to a given category, for the control of action, if that same category of object was actively ignored on the preceding trial” (=-=Allport, 1989-=-, p.659; quoted in Arvidson, 2003, p.114). The Stroop effects(Stroop, 1935) is a visual inhibition effect that occurs when a presented word indicates a different colour than the actual colour of the f...

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...int of view of the user being interrupted, some analysis takes into account also the cost/benefit to the interrupter, and the joint cost/benefit (J. M. Hudson, Christensen, Kellogg, & Erickson, 2002; =-=O'Conaill & Frohlich, 1995-=-). 4.3 PRESENTING ALTERNATIVE FOCI OR MAINTAINING THE CURRENT FOCUS As alternative foci are identified and evaluated, strategies for their presentation to the user must be defined. Information present...

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...terruption, reaction, comprehension, and satisfaction) will often depend on how well the new information is integrated in the context of the current activity. For example, Carroll and his colleagues (=-=Carroll, Neale, Isenhour, Rosson, & McCrickard, 2003-=-),sfocussing on the support of collaborative activities, make a compelling case for the integration of awareness information within the context of user's current activity. 4.3.1 Content selection To o...

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...stress (Bailey, Konstan, & Carlis, 2001; Zijlstra, Roe, Leonova, & Krediet, 1999) and hinder in various ways the performance of the primary task - see for example (Franke, Daniels, & McFarlane, 2002; =-=McFarlane & Latorella, 2002-=-; Nagata, 2003; Speier, Vessey, & Valacich, 2003). As emphasised by McFarlane and Latorella (2002) the implementation of any semiautonomous or user multitasking technology entails interrupting the use...

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...80; Norman, 1969)) proposed a late selection theory where all stimuli are analysed but only pertinent stimuli are selected for awareness and memorisation. Other studies (Neisser, 1967; Pashler, 1998; =-=Treisman, 1960-=-, 1969) proposed modified early selection theories where non-attended stimuli are not completely filtered out but their contribution to the attentive stage is somehow limited. Treisman (1960; Treisman...

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... if, when, and how to make it available to the user. Notification systems have been studied in a wide variety of application domains including messaging systems (Cutrell, Czerwinski, & Horvitz, 2001; =-=Czerwinski, Cutrell, & Horvitz, 2000-=-; Horvitz, Kadie, Paek, & Hovel, 2003), alerting in military operations (Obermayer & Nugent, 2000), and shared document annotation (Brush, Bargeron, Gupta, & Grudin, 2001). At least three aspects of i...

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...the purposes of our study that the order in which cues are presented is the determining factor in highlighting and conditioned blocking effects. Experiments by Kruschke and others (see references in (=-=Kruschke, 2001-=-, 2003)) demonstrate that, once people have learned that a cue A corresponds to an effect X, highlighting and conditioned blocking effects may be associated to the pairing of cue A with other cues res...

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...d mechanisms, gaze tracking is the prevalent approach. It has been applied to the detection of current attentional focus of users performing various tasks such as: participating in a virtual meeting (=-=Vertegaal, 1999-=-), reading an electronic document written in a foreign language (Hyrskykari, Majaranta, Aaltonen, & Räihä, 2000), or pointing a cursor (Zhai, 2003). One of the major difficulties related to employing ...

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...essed. […] Complexity and information overload characterize almost every visual environment […] To cope with this potential overload, the brain is equipped with a variety of attentional mechanisms." (=-=Chun & Wolfe, 2001-=-, p. 273) These mechanisms collectively form what we call attention and allow us to cope with the massive amount of stimuli we receive in the physical world. Why then are we now so overwhelmed by the ...

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...dalities other than visual have been studied in interfaces for Intelligent Environments and Ubiquitous Computing where several channels are often employed in order to communicate with the user - see (=-=Abowd, Mynatt, & Rodden, 2002-=-) for a review. Whilst attentional processes in multimodal interaction have been less studied than visual-only processes both by psychologists and HCI researchers, some advances in this direction have...

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...imple primary tasks, interruptions may even facilitate task performance (Speier, Vessey, & Valacich, 2003). On the other hand, as widely reported in the literature, interruptions may generate stress (=-=Bailey, Konstan, & Carlis, 2001-=-; Zijlstra, Roe, Leonova, & Krediet, 1999) and hinder in various ways the performance of the primary task - see for example (Franke, Daniels, & McFarlane, 2002; McFarlane & Latorella, 2002; Nagata, 20...

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...ode; the second case [establishes a quasimode]"(Raskin, 2000, p.55). Experiments have demonstrated that quasimode induce less errors than modes.sreviews the work done to define the EPIC architecture (=-=Kieras, Meyer, Ballas, & Lauber, 2000-=-), a computation model of human multi-task performance, and other theories following the EPIC principles (Rubinstein, Meyer, & Evans, 2001). The stated goal of the EPIC project is to simulate human-sy...

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...ocus has not been largely explored in current research. Some authors concentrate on high level user’s goals, such as not wanting to be disturbed, or wanting to be informed about certain events (e.g. (=-=McCrickard & Chewar, 2003-=-)). However, as discussed in the first part of this paper, cognitive psychology has demonstrated that current, low level tasks and goals (such as completing one's assignment, or verifying one's availa...

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...kely to be related to individual cognitive characteristics. Cognitive models of the user could therefore play an essential role in attention aware systems. Other experiments by Spector and Biederman (=-=Spector & Biederman, 1976-=-) reported by Rubinstein and his colleagues (2001) demonstrated that task switching times may be significantly reduced if visual cues are provided about the task to be performed next. In the settings ...

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... (highlighting) and learned inattention (conditioned blocking). Kruschke stipulates that "both attentional shifting and associative learning are driven by the rational goal of rapid error reduction" (=-=Kruschke, 2003-=-, p.171) so that, in order to reduce errors with respect to already learned cues, we learn to attend to certain cues and to ignore others. In particular, following the model proposed by Mackintosh (19...

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...ely unnoticed, it may smoothly integrate with the user's current task, or it may capture the user's attention and cause a temporary or durable focus switch. As noted by McCrickard and his colleagues (=-=McCrickard, Catrambone, Chewar, & Stasko, 2003-=-) in their work on notification systems, "Some notification systems are designed to attract attention and compel other activities, thus by their very nature they must interrupt users from some primary...

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...or information that may be useful for the primary task or for some higher-level goal. It has been argued that, in the case of simple primary tasks, interruptions may even facilitate task performance (=-=Speier, Vessey, & Valacich, 2003-=-). On the other hand, as widely reported in the literature, interruptions may generate stress (Bailey, Konstan, & Carlis, 2001; Zijlstra, Roe, Leonova, & Krediet, 1999) and hinder in various ways the ...

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...e that distractors may delay the processing of stimuli especially when they are temporally near and conceptually related to the target stimulus. Classic examples of interference are negative priming (=-=Tipper, 1985-=-) and the Stroop effect (Stroop, 1935). Negative priming is an effect by which "it is more difficult to select a stimulus, belonging to a given category, for the control of action, if that same catego...

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...tention is symmetrically distributed around the fixation point (Simons & Rensink, 2005). However, Rayner observes that one may shift the point of visual attention without necessarily moving the eyes (=-=Rayner, 1995-=-). For this reason, gaze tracking is sometimes integrated with other mechanisms for the collection of sensory cues II Whether this is the case also in situations of activities that are not "task-orien...

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...e reintegrated in the definition of reference tasks. Activity theory has already been applied to the design and analysis of interactive tasks in multi-user environments (see for example (Cluts, 2003; =-=Fjeld, Lauche, Bichsel, Voorhorst, Krueger, & Rautergerg, 2002-=-)); therefore we believe that an extension of reference tasks in this direction would be feasible. Some of these applications advance models that appear particularly well suited for attention oriented...

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... and MacKay (1973) reported experiments demonstrating semantic processing of unattended stimuli). As a response to these findings some authors (see for example (Deutsch & Deutsch, 1963; Duncan, 1980; =-=Norman, 1969-=-)) proposed a late selection theory where all stimuli are analysed but only pertinent stimuli are selected for awareness and memorisation. Other studies (Neisser, 1967; Pashler, 1998; Treisman, 1960, ...

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... that "bringing humans into the evaluation (as users, subjects, judges) produces a more complicated, costly, and subjective process" (ibid, p. 114). Furthermore, basing their work on activity theory (=-=Kaptelinin, Kuutti, & Bannon, 1995-=-), the authors define tasks as a conscious action subordinate to an object. For example, extracting information from a voice mail message is a task or action subordinate to the voice mail message obje...

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...tion, able to interact intelligently with their environment." Three aspects of attention seem to be commonly recognised as fundamental: selection, awareness, and control (Baddeley & Weiskrantz, 1993; =-=Parasuraman & Davis, 1984-=-). Studies in experimental and cognitive psychology essentially confirm our naïve understanding of attention control. Roughly one can say that attention can either be controlled voluntarily by the sub...

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...rs phrase it: "stimuli evoke associated task-sets" (ibid, p. 207). This implies that stimuli related to familiar and recent foci may cause greater disruption to the user’s current activity (see also (=-=Rafal & Henik, 1994-=-) as reported in section 2.2 of this paper). Therefore, an assessment of the context of the user activity should be added to the evaluation of the costs/benefits of interruptions. For example, if a us...

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...eir proposal of reference tasks definition on earlier work of several authors and in particular they see the metrics used to evaluate reference tasks as corresponding to Newman's critical parameters (=-=Newman, 1997-=-). Such parameters allow the comparison of different systems on the same task by establishing how well they score on each critical parameter. For example, critical parameters relevant to Attention Awa...

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...merita, 2003)), be implicitly defined by the system or the situation in which it is used, or be dynamically evaluated on the basis of the user activity. In this last case, task-modelling tools (e.g. (=-=Bailey, Adamczyk, Chang, & Chilson, 2005-=-; Maulsby, 1997)) may be used to infer possible user’s tasks from observed actions. Methodologies for focus determination similar to those described above may also be used to collect information helpi...

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... (low comprehension). Although McCrickard and his colleagues concentrate on classic notification systems (i.e. systems that allow the user to monitor information related to secondary activities, see (=-=McCrickard, Czerwinski, & Bartram, 2003-=-)) their work promises to be applicable to more general Attention Aware Systems that manage several types of information and evaluate if, when, and how to make it available to the user. Notification s...

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... interruptions during low working memory load and provide retrieval cues allowing the user to mentally restore the cognitive state necessary to resume the interrupted task.sAdamczyk and Bailey (2004; =-=Bailey & Konstan, 2005-=-) have studied the impact of interruptions at different times in a task execution. Basing their work on event perception theories, the authors represent tasks as two level hierarchies composed of coar...

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...l, Czerwinski, & Horvitz, 2001; Czerwinski, Cutrell, & Horvitz, 2000; Horvitz, Kadie, Paek, & Hovel, 2003), alerting in military operations (Obermayer & Nugent, 2000), and shared document annotation (=-=Brush, Bargeron, Gupta, & Grudin, 2001-=-). At least three aspects of information presentation have a significant impact on attention allocation, the presentation style (including modality), the timing of presentation, and the amount of cont...

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... whether a focus shift would be appropriate. Some authors in cognitive psychology have discussed the relationship between attention and awareness as mechanisms for conscious, or accessible knowledge (=-=Lamme, 2004-=-; Simons & Rensink, 2005). The results of these studies indicate that, contrary to what has been assumed by most designers of awareness mechanisms, making information about the environment available t...

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...trol and movement become operational elements of the rhetoric/ attention mechanisms of different modal realisations (ibid, pp. 132-133). Recent developments in Attentive User Interfaces (for example (=-=Vertegaal, Chen, Shell, & Mamuji, 2005-=-)) and ubiquitous computing confirm that these aspects of rhetoric continue to be as crucial away from screen-based interfaces as on screen. Elsewhere (Roda & Thomas, 2005) we have discussed the class...

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... pressure, and working memory limitations. Dynamic Bayesian networks and influence diagrams are used "for modelling the user’s resource limitations and making decisions about the system’s behaviour" (=-=Jameson, Schafer, Weis, Berthold, & Weyrath, 1999-=-, p. 81). The two prototypes – one supplying instructions for car repair (ibid), and one for making a phone call in an airport (Bohnenberger, Brandherm, Grossmann-Hutter, Heckmann, & Wittig, 2002) - s...

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...its of interruptions has been done taking the point of view of the user being interrupted, some analysis takes into account also the cost/benefit to the interrupter, and the joint cost/benefit (J. M. =-=Hudson, Christensen, Kellogg, & Erickson, 2002-=-; O'Conaill & Frohlich, 1995). 4.3 PRESENTING ALTERNATIVE FOCI OR MAINTAINING THE CURRENT FOCUS As alternative foci are identified and evaluated, strategies for their presentation to the user must be ...

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...designed to target user attention must also consider these factors and adjust the attention mechanisms accordingly. For example, the discrete display of translation aids utilised by the iDict system (=-=Hyrskykari, Majaranta, Aaltonen, & Räihä, 2000-=-) takes into account the user need for minimal distraction; in a collaborative work environment where immediate attention to new information might be vital to the successful completion of a project, m...

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...rlis, 2001; Zijlstra, Roe, Leonova, & Krediet, 1999) and hinder in various ways the performance of the primary task - see for example (Franke, Daniels, & McFarlane, 2002; McFarlane & Latorella, 2002; =-=Nagata, 2003-=-; Speier, Vessey, & Valacich, 2003). As emphasised by McFarlane and Latorella (2002) the implementation of any semiautonomous or user multitasking technology entails interrupting the user from other a...

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...erature, interruptions may generate stress (Bailey, Konstan, & Carlis, 2001; Zijlstra, Roe, Leonova, & Krediet, 1999) and hinder in various ways the performance of the primary task - see for example (=-=Franke, Daniels, & McFarlane, 2002-=-; McFarlane & Latorella, 2002; Nagata, 2003; Speier, Vessey, & Valacich, 2003). As emphasised by McFarlane and Latorella (2002) the implementation of any semiautonomous or user multitasking technology...

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... initiate bottom-up processes that can be pruned by top-down processes guided by goals. A system integrating the two processes has been proposed by Hill in his work on the synthetic helicopter pilot (=-=Hill, 1999-=-). 4.2.1 Determining alternative foci The need for a focus switch may result from several conditions including: the availability of a "better" focus for the current user 's goal, a temporary or durabl...

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...focus shifts. (3) The development of systems that address the most promising application areas as defined in section 4. Finally, (4) theories of attention in natural language and human communication (=-=Argyle & Cook, 1976-=-; Clark, 1996, pp. 274-282; Grosz & Sidner, 1990) may provide useful insights for the definition and design of Attention Aware Systems and could be further explored with this objective in mind. 6 Conc...

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... of application domains including messaging systems (Cutrell, Czerwinski, & Horvitz, 2001; Czerwinski, Cutrell, & Horvitz, 2000; Horvitz, Kadie, Paek, & Hovel, 2003), alerting in military operations (=-=Obermayer & Nugent, 2000-=-), and shared document annotation (Brush, Bargeron, Gupta, & Grudin, 2001). At least three aspects of information presentation have a significant impact on attention allocation, the presentation style...

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...who instead may turn to digital artefacts for their symbolic or affective value, entertainment, orspleasure in general - see for example Lowgren's arguments for Interactive Design versus classic HCI (=-=Löwgren, 2002-=-). These are the domains where capturing and maintaining user attention may be the ultimate goal of the system. This section reviews the work done so far in attention-aware systems. It should be noted...

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... example (Vertegaal, Chen, Shell, & Mamuji, 2005)) and ubiquitous computing confirm that these aspects of rhetoric continue to be as crucial away from screen-based interfaces as on screen. Elsewhere (=-=Roda & Thomas, 2005-=-) we have discussed the classic HCI debate over transparent versus proactive/adaptive interfaces and how a focus on user attention resolves this dichotomy. However, this new focus also brings a new qu...

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...n either be controlled voluntarily by the subject, or it can be captured by some external event. The former type of control mechanism is referred to as endogenous, top-down, or goal driven attention (=-=Arvidson, 2003-=-; Posner, 1980; Yantis, 1998). An example of endogenous attentional mechanism is the attention you are paying to this page as you are reading. The latter type of mechanism is referred to as exogenous,...

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...he system or the situation in which it is used, or be dynamically evaluated on the basis of the user activity. In this last case, task-modelling tools (e.g. (Bailey, Adamczyk, Chang, & Chilson, 2005; =-=Maulsby, 1997-=-)) may be used to infer possible user’s tasks from observed actions. Methodologies for focus determination similar to those described above may also be used to collect information helping to infer the...

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...ers and processors of information, able to interact intelligently with their environment." Three aspects of attention seem to be commonly recognised as fundamental: selection, awareness, and control (=-=Baddeley & Weiskrantz, 1993-=-; Parasuraman & Davis, 1984). Studies in experimental and cognitive psychology essentially confirm our naïve understanding of attention control. Roughly one can say that attention can either be contro...

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...e system’s behaviour" (Jameson, Schafer, Weis, Berthold, & Weyrath, 1999, p. 81). The two prototypes – one supplying instructions for car repair (ibid), and one for making a phone call in an airport (=-=Bohnenberger, Brandherm, Grossmann-Hutter, Heckmann, & Wittig, 2002-=-) - serve to explore methodologies for assessing users' resource limitation on the basis of their speech, and consequently bundling instructions in appropriately long sequences. Although, as the autho...

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...ry, need to be reintegrated in the definition of reference tasks. Activity theory has already been applied to the design and analysis of interactive tasks in multi-user environments (see for example (=-=Cluts, 2003-=-; Fjeld, Lauche, Bichsel, Voorhorst, Krueger, & Rautergerg, 2002)); therefore we believe that an extension of reference tasks in this direction would be feasible. Some of these applications advance mo...

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...cesses are related to, and necessary for, the successful accomplishment of many diverse activities. In the literature, Attention Aware Systems have also been referred to as Attentive User Interfaces (=-=Vertegaal, 2003-=-); however, we prefer using the former name as it stresses the fact that issues related to attention are relevant to the design of the system as a whole rather than limited to the interface. In order ...

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...presentative models of high-level cognitive processes; however, other models have also been extensively used (see for example (ACT-R Research Group, 2002 - 2005)) or simply proposed (see for example (=-=Hewett, 2000-=-)).s2.3.1 Connectionist models of learning and attention: attention and intentionality Grossberg's Adaptive Resonance Theory (Grossberg, 1976a, 1976b, 1999) explains how attentional processes are inte...

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...air, & Horvitz, 2000). Other examples of collection of multiple sensory cues are the system proposed by Stiefelhagen that tracks head pose and acoustic information about who is speaking in a meeting (=-=Stiefelhagen, 2002-=-), or the systems for spoken-language developed as part of the Attentional User Interface project (Horvitz, Kadie, Paek, & Hovel, 2003). This type of environmental information may help to detect both ...

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... may control task switching. They have been selected as representative models of high-level cognitive processes; however, other models have also been extensively used (see for example (ACT-R Research =-=Group, 2002-=- - 2005)) or simply proposed (see for example (Hewett, 2000)).s2.3.1 Connectionist models of learning and attention: attention and intentionality Grossberg's Adaptive Resonance Theory (Grossberg, 1976...