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...cissism in its diagnostic nosology. According to the most recent version of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III; American Psychiatric =-=Association, 1980-=-), the narcissistic personality is defined by the following clinical criteria: a grandiose sense of selfimportance or uniqueness; a preoccupation with fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance...

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...particularly mothering) in which the parent uses the narcissistically cathected child to fulfill her or his own unsatisfied needs for admiration, praise, recognition, and achievement (Kernberg, 1975; =-=Kohut, 1971-=-; Mahler, 1972; Mahler & Kaplan, 1977; Miller, 1981). Other clinical advances stimulated by Freud's writings include (a) a recognition of the important role that aggression plays in narcissism, partic...

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...lity as a conceptual template, we rationally developed a list of 220 dyadic items that we believed reflected narcissistic sentiments. We then piloted our measure on a group of undergraduate students (=-=Raskin & Hall, 1979-=-) and used an internal consistency and item-total correlation strategy to cull items from the 220-item domain to represent the general construct of narcissism. This procedure produced an 80-item NPI t...

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...thic parenting (particularly mothering) in which the parent uses the narcissistically cathected child to fulfill her or his own unsatisfied needs for admiration, praise, recognition, and achievement (=-=Kernberg, 1975-=-; Kohut, 1971; Mahler, 1972; Mahler & Kaplan, 1977; Miller, 1981). Other clinical advances stimulated by Freud's writings include (a) a recognition of the important role that aggression plays in narci...

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...dure produced an 80-item NPI that we then used in a construct validity study aimed at exploring a hypothesized relationship between narcissism and creativity (Raskin, 1980). In a series of published (=-=Raskin & Hall, 1981-=-) and unpublished follow-up studies, we continued using an internal consistency approach to further cull the 80-item NPI. These analyses produced a 54-item measure of narcissism with high internal con...

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...lidity for the measure (Auerbach, 1984; Biscardi & Schill, 1985; Emmons, 1981, 1984, 1987; Leak, 1984; Phares & Erskine, 1984; Prifitera & Ryan, 1984; Raskin & Shaw, in press; Robbins & Patton, 1985; =-=Watson, Grisham, Trotter, and Biderman, 1984-=-; Watson, Hood, Foster, & Morris, in press; Watson, Hood, & Morris, 1984; Watson, Hood, Morris, & Hall, in press; Watson, Taylor, & Morris, 1987). Although these studies are not conclusive regarding t...

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...'Connor, 1954; Rogers & Dymond, 1954), and the longstanding predeliction among psychoanalytic psychologists to view narcissism as being associated with a disturbance in the regulation of self-esteem (=-=Jacobson, 1964-=-; Kernberg, 1975; Reich, 1960) and as an indicator of personal maladjustment, how can we interpret the relationship between narcissism and self-ideal self congruency while satisfying these two apparen...

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... items, an analysis of tetrachoric correlations can often provide a clearer view of the latent item structure that underlies the interindividual differences in the response characteristics of a test (=-=Carroll, 1961-=-; Glass & Stanley, 1970;Thurstone, 1947). Given these observations, and our intentions of reworking the NPI into an instrument that better reflects the complexities that are inherent in the narcissism...

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...standing predeliction among empirical psychologists to equate self-ideal self congruency with positive selfregard and personal adjustment (Butler & Haigh, 1954; HanIon, Hofstaetter, & O'Connor, 1954; =-=Rogers & Dymond, 1954-=-), and the longstanding predeliction among psychoanalytic psychologists to view narcissism as being associated with a disturbance in the regulation of self-esteem (Jacobson, 1964; Kernberg, 1975; Reic...

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... modicum of construct validity for the measure (Auerbach, 1984; Biscardi & Schill, 1985; Emmons, 1981, 1984, 1987; Leak, 1984; Phares & Erskine, 1984; Prifitera & Ryan, 1984; Raskin & Shaw, in press; =-=Robbins & Patton, 1985-=-; Watson, Grisham, Trotter, and Biderman, 1984; Watson, Hood, Foster, & Morris, in press; Watson, Hood, & Morris, 1984; Watson, Hood, Morris, & Hall, in press; Watson, Taylor, & Morris, 1987). Althoug...

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...with self and ideal-self discrepancy. However, given the longstanding predeliction among empirical psychologists to equate self-ideal self congruency with positive selfregard and personal adjustment (=-=Butler & Haigh, 1954-=-; HanIon, Hofstaetter, & O'Connor, 1954; Rogers & Dymond, 1954), and the longstanding predeliction among psychoanalytic psychologists to view narcissism as being associated with a disturbance in the r...

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...m .80 to .86 across several studies). Since then there have been several published studies that have provided a modicum of construct validity for the measure (Auerbach, 1984; Biscardi & Schill, 1985; =-=Emmons, 1981-=-, 1984, 1987; Leak, 1984; Phares & Erskine, 1984; Prifitera & Ryan, 1984; Raskin & Shaw, in press; Robbins & Patton, 1985; Watson, Grisham, Trotter, and Biderman, 1984; Watson, Hood, Foster, & Morris,...

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...he narcissistically cathected child to fulfill her or his own unsatisfied needs for admiration, praise, recognition, and achievement (Kernberg, 1975; Kohut, 1971; Mahler, 1972; Mahler & Kaplan, 1977; =-=Miller, 1981-=-). Other clinical advances stimulated by Freud's writings include (a) a recognition of the important role that aggression plays in narcissism, particularly as it involves the devaluation of others as ...

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... 100 CQ items had an average interjudge correlation between all possible pairs of raters of .36, and the alpha composite reliability for the panel of judges was .74. 3. The Adjective Check List (ACL; =-=Gough & Heilbrun, 1965-=-). Following each assessment session, 10 staff members recorded their impressions of each subject by completing the ACL. ACL items were then aggregated for the 10 staff members so that each adjective ...

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...rent in the narcissism construct. In the theoretical realm, narcissism has been used to describe and explain such diverse processes as the maintenance and regulation of self-esteem (Freud, 1914/1957; =-=Stolorow, 1975-=-; Val, 1982) as well as a principle process involved in the formation of interpersonal relations (Freud, 1914/1957; Moore, 1975;Pulver, 1970; Tiecholz, 1978). In the clinical realm, the concept of nar...

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...ternal consistency (the alphas ranged from .80 to .86 across several studies). Since then there have been several published studies that have provided a modicum of construct validity for the measure (=-=Auerbach, 1984-=-; Biscardi & Schill, 1985; Emmons, 1981, 1984, 1987; Leak, 1984; Phares & Erskine, 1984; Prifitera & Ryan, 1984; Raskin & Shaw, in press; Robbins & Patton, 1985; Watson, Grisham, Trotter, and Biderman...

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...cy (the alphas ranged from .80 to .86 across several studies). Since then there have been several published studies that have provided a modicum of construct validity for the measure (Auerbach, 1984; =-=Biscardi & Schill, 1985-=-; Emmons, 1981, 1984, 1987; Leak, 1984; Phares & Erskine, 1984; Prifitera & Ryan, 1984; Raskin & Shaw, in press; Robbins & Patton, 1985; Watson, Grisham, Trotter, and Biderman, 1984; Watson, Hood, Fos...

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...mothering) in which the parent uses the narcissistically cathected child to fulfill her or his own unsatisfied needs for admiration, praise, recognition, and achievement (Kernberg, 1975; Kohut, 1971; =-=Mahler, 1972-=-; Mahler & Kaplan, 1977; Miller, 1981). Other clinical advances stimulated by Freud's writings include (a) a recognition of the important role that aggression plays in narcissism, particularly as it i...

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...Since then there have been several published studies that have provided a modicum of construct validity for the measure (Auerbach, 1984; Biscardi & Schill, 1985; Emmons, 1981, 1984, 1987; Leak, 1984; =-=Phares & Erskine, 1984-=-; Prifitera & Ryan, 1984; Raskin & Shaw, in press; Robbins & Patton, 1985; Watson, Grisham, Trotter, and Biderman, 1984; Watson, Hood, Foster, & Morris, in press; Watson, Hood, & Morris, 1984; Watson,...

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...aintenance of self-esteem; and (g) as a conditioning factor of repression (Freud, 1914/ 1957, 1923/1961; see also reviews on narcissism by Bing, McLaughlin, & Marburg, 1959; Duruz, 1981; Moore, 1975; =-=Pulver, 1970-=-; and Tiecholz, 1978). In contrast to these highly abstract metapsychological formulations, Freud's clinical uses for the term narcissism included the following behavioral phenomena: (a) a set of atti...

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...es a dimension for narcissism that is embedded in a coherent context of other important psychological dimensions. Additionally, because several psychoanalytic theorists (Kernberg, 1975; Murray, 1964; =-=Reich, 1960-=-) have suggested that narcissistic phenomena are often associated with aggrandized and aggressivized distortions in an individual's ideal self-representations, we wanted to use the interpersonal circu...

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...& Shaw, in press; Robbins & Patton, 1985; Watson, Grisham, Trotter, and Biderman, 1984; Watson, Hood, Foster, & Morris, in press; Watson, Hood, & Morris, 1984; Watson, Hood, Morris, & Hall, in press; =-=Watson, Taylor, & Morris, 1987-=-). Although these studies are not conclusive regarding the validity of the measure, they do suggest that the NPI is a viable and perhaps promising measure for the general construct of narcissism. Howe...

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... self-representations, the positive correlation between self-ideal self congruency and self-esteem may best be construed as representing a form of narcissistic ego inflation or defensive self-esteem (=-=Harder, 1984-=-; Silber & Tippett, 1965). Although the scenario we present is speculative at best, it is reasonable enough to suggest that future research in the areas of self-ideal self congruency and self-esteem c...

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...which the parent uses the narcissistically cathected child to fulfill her or his own unsatisfied needs for admiration, praise, recognition, and achievement (Kernberg, 1975; Kohut, 1971; Mahler, 1972; =-=Mahler & Kaplan, 1977-=-; Miller, 1981). Other clinical advances stimulated by Freud's writings include (a) a recognition of the important role that aggression plays in narcissism, particularly as it involves the devaluation...

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...ious dependency on external sources of love represents a significant source of vulnerability that must be defended against by narcissistic defenses aimed at creating the illusion of self-sufficiency (=-=Modell, 1975-=-). According to Kernberg, this disturbance in the regulation of self-esteem is related to a lack of differentiation among an individual's self-representations, ideal self-representations, and ideal ob...

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...nd others. Depending on the level of item and subscale aggregation, the ICL can produce scores that reflect 16, 8, or 2 categories of interpersonal behavior. Because previous research (Laforge, 1977; =-=Paddock & Nowicki, 1986-=-) suggests that the ICL octant and axis scores represent the most reliable scores in the ICL system, our analyses included the octant scores for Managerial and Autocratic, Competitive and Narcissistic...

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...neral construct of narcissism. This procedure produced an 80-item NPI that we then used in a construct validity study aimed at exploring a hypothesized relationship between narcissism and creativity (=-=Raskin, 1980-=-). In a series of published (Raskin & Hall, 1981) and unpublished follow-up studies, we continued using an internal consistency approach to further cull the 80-item NPI. These analyses produced a 54-i...

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...age of the construct. This confusion has made narcissism a near ubiquitous term used to describe "all human efforts," "man's most sublime aspirations," and even "the guiding motive of nature herself (=-=Ellis, 1927-=-). On the other hand, Freud's clinical uses of the narcissism concept have stimulated important contemporary clinical advances in understanding the etiology of narcissistic disturbance. This etiology ...

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...7; Leak, 1984; Phares & Erskine, 1984; Prifitera & Ryan, 1984; Raskin & Shaw, in press; Robbins & Patton, 1985; Watson, Grisham, Trotter, and Biderman, 1984; Watson, Hood, Foster, & Morris, in press; =-=Watson, Hood, & Morris, 1984-=-; Watson, Hood, Morris, & Hall, in press; Watson, Taylor, & Morris, 1987). Although these studies are not conclusive regarding the validity of the measure, they do suggest that the NPI is a viable and...

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...t in the development and maintenance of self-esteem; and (g) as a conditioning factor of repression (Freud, 1914/ 1957, 1923/1961; see also reviews on narcissism by Bing, McLaughlin, & Marburg, 1959; =-=Duruz, 1981-=-; Moore, 1975; Pulver, 1970; and Tiecholz, 1978). In contrast to these highly abstract metapsychological formulations, Freud's clinical uses for the term narcissism included the following behavioral p...

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... (a) structural model (id, ego, and superego); (b) concept of the ego ideal and subsequently the superego; (c) shift from an id psychology to an ego psychology; and (d) object relations theory (e.g., =-=Fine, 1986-=-; Moore, 1975; Sandier, Holder, & Dare, 1976; Tiecholz, 1978). As with many of Freud's more important concepts, his thinking pertaining to narcissism tended to follow two separate yet interdependent l...

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...s). These subjects represented a subset of the aggregated sample we used in our factor analytic study of the NPI. Materials Instruments included the 40-item NPI and the Interpersonal Check List (ICL; =-=Leary, 1956-=-). The ICL is a checklist that consists of 128 adjectives and adjective phrases that can be used to describe oneself and others. Depending on the level of item and subscale aggregation, the ICL can pr...

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...ral model (id, ego, and superego); (b) concept of the ego ideal and subsequently the superego; (c) shift from an id psychology to an ego psychology; and (d) object relations theory (e.g., Fine, 1986; =-=Moore, 1975-=-; Sandier, Holder, & Dare, 1976; Tiecholz, 1978). As with many of Freud's more important concepts, his thinking pertaining to narcissism tended to follow two separate yet interdependent lines of devel...

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...ure and includes a dimension for narcissism that is embedded in a coherent context of other important psychological dimensions. Additionally, because several psychoanalytic theorists (Kernberg, 1975; =-=Murray, 1964-=-; Reich, 1960) have suggested that narcissistic phenomena are often associated with aggrandized and aggressivized distortions in an individual's ideal self-representations, we wanted to use the interp...

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..., ego, and superego); (b) concept of the ego ideal and subsequently the superego; (c) shift from an id psychology to an ego psychology; and (d) object relations theory (e.g., Fine, 1986; Moore, 1975; =-=Sandier, Holder, & Dare, 1976-=-; Tiecholz, 1978). As with many of Freud's more important concepts, his thinking pertaining to narcissism tended to follow two separate yet interdependent lines of development. On the one hand, narcis...

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... ideals; (f) as a primary ingredient in the development and maintenance of self-esteem; and (g) as a conditioning factor of repression (Freud, 1914/ 1957, 1923/1961; see also reviews on narcissism by =-=Bing, McLaughlin, & Marburg, 1959-=-; Duruz, 1981; Moore, 1975; Pulver, 1970; and Tiecholz, 1978). In contrast to these highly abstract metapsychological formulations, Freud's clinical uses for the term narcissism included the following...

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...ced into psychological literature in 1898, when Havelock Ellis used the term Narcissuslike to refer to "a tendency for the sexual emotions to be lost and almost entirely absorbed in self admiration" (=-=Ellis, 1898-=-). Shortly after this reference appeared, Nacke (1899) wrote a German summary of the Ellis paper in which he used the term Narcismus to refer to a sexual perversion whereby a person treats his or her ...

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...cribe oneself and others. Depending on the level of item and subscale aggregation, the ICL can produce scores that reflect 16, 8, or 2 categories of interpersonal behavior. Because previous research (=-=Laforge, 1977-=-; Paddock & Nowicki, 1986) suggests that the ICL octant and axis scores represent the most reliable scores in the ICL system, our analyses included the octant scores for Managerial and Autocratic, Com...

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...en several published studies that have provided a modicum of construct validity for the measure (Auerbach, 1984; Biscardi & Schill, 1985; Emmons, 1981, 1984, 1987; Leak, 1984; Phares & Erskine, 1984; =-=Prifitera & Ryan, 1984-=-; Raskin & Shaw, in press; Robbins & Patton, 1985; Watson, Grisham, Trotter, and Biderman, 1984; Watson, Hood, Foster, & Morris, in press; Watson, Hood, & Morris, 1984; Watson, Hood, Morris, & Hall, i...

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...pt of the ego ideal and subsequently the superego; (c) shift from an id psychology to an ego psychology; and (d) object relations theory (e.g., Fine, 1986; Moore, 1975; Sandier, Holder, & Dare, 1976; =-=Tiecholz, 1978-=-). As with many of Freud's more important concepts, his thinking pertaining to narcissism tended to follow two separate yet interdependent lines of development. On the one hand, narcissism served as a...

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...issism construct. In the theoretical realm, narcissism has been used to describe and explain such diverse processes as the maintenance and regulation of self-esteem (Freud, 1914/1957; Stolorow, 1975; =-=Val, 1982-=-) as well as a principle process involved in the formation of interpersonal relations (Freud, 1914/1957; Moore, 1975;Pulver, 1970; Tiecholz, 1978). In the clinical realm, the concept of narcissism has...