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...event future mistakes (e.g., Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1993; Papageorgiou & Wells, 2001). Consistent with this view, attention to problems is an important component of successful self-regulation (=-=Carver & Scheier, 1998-=-) and to normative social development. By orienting attention to potential problems or environmental threats, some degree of negative self-focus may facilitate problem solving (Andrews & Thompson, 200...

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...to ruminate on negative mood is highly correlated with the tendency to ruminate on stressful events (assessed via self-report; Robinson & Alloy, 2003). A central tenant of the response styles theory (=-=Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991-=-) is that vulnerability for psychopathology most likely lies not in the engagement of negative self-referential thinking but rather the inability to disengage from it. Based on this research, we expec...

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...Network Face Stimuli Set (Tottenham, Borscheid, Ellertsen, Marcus, & Nelson, 2002). Faces with the highest reliability scores for rater identification of the correct emotional expression were chosen (=-=Tottenham et al., 2009-=-), including an equal number of male and female faces of different ethnicities that each had a neutral, happy, and sad expression. Each trial began with a fixation cross for 1,000 ms, followed by pres...

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...d gone better and Think ‘‘Why can’t I handle things better?’’ The CRSQ Rumination scale demonstrated good reliability in this study (a .85). Depressive symptoms. The Children’s Depression Inventory (=-=Kovacs, 1992-=-) is a 27-item self-report measure of depressive symptoms that has been standardized on children and adolescents aged 7–17 years. Each item consists of three statements (e.g., I am sad once in a while...

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... reflective aspect of rumination may be benign or even adaptive, whereas the brooding aspect is related to depressive symptoms and difficulties (Burwell & Shirk, 2007; Joormann, Dkane & Gotlib, 2006; =-=Treynor, Gonzalez, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2003-=-). Others have distinguished between concrete (focusing on the experience) and abstract (focusing on the cause, meaning, and consequence) forms of rumination and find that the abstract form is maladap...

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...out their causes and consequences. Prior work has found that rumination predicts many forms of psychopathology including anxiety, binge eating, binge drinking, self-injury, and especially depression (=-=Nolen-Hoeksema, Wisco, & Lyubomirsky, 2008-=-). In the present study, we attempt to characterize the ruminative process in real time in young adolescents, specifically by examining factors that predict rumination following an interpersonal stres...

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...mpared to younger children, individuals in this developmental period are likely to show individual differences in trait rumination (Rood et al., 2009) but not yet likely to have developed depression (=-=Hankin et al., 1998-=-). Thus, understanding rumination among this developmental group has important potential for informing prevention efforts. CHARACTERIZING THE RUMINATIVE PROCESS 3 D ow nl oa de dsbys[L aw ren cesU niv...

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...s & Thompson, 2009; Martin & Tesser, 1996; Watkins, 2010). Yet experimental studies suggest that rumination also impairs problem solving, especially for interpersonal problems (Donaldson & Lam, 2004; =-=Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1995-=-; Lyubomirsky, Tucker, Caldwell, & Berg, 1999; Watkins & Baracaia, 2002), so what may start out as a normative process can also lead to dysfunction. Some researchers have suggested that there are diff...

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...nd to normative social development. By orienting attention to potential problems or environmental threats, some degree of negative self-focus may facilitate problem solving (Andrews & Thompson, 2009; =-=Martin & Tesser, 1996-=-; Watkins, 2010). Yet experimental studies suggest that rumination also impairs problem solving, especially for interpersonal problems (Donaldson & Lam, 2004; Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1995; Lyubo...

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...ion (Wisco, 2009). We also wanted a task that was interpersonal in nature, because peer stress is commonly reported among adolescents, especially girls (e.g., Hankin, Mermelstein, & Roesch, 2007; see =-=Rose & Rudolph, 2006-=-, for a review), and is a likely theme of rumination among adolescents. Participants were told that they had the opportunity to audition for a new reality television show and would be recorded giving ...

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...udies have also shown an effect of rumination on mood. These studies involve a rumination induction, which typically consists of 8min of focusing on feelings along with their causes and consequences (=-=Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1993-=-). Several studies have found that a rumination induction results in increases in negative affect, but only among participants with higher depressive symptoms to begin with (i.e., for dysphoric indivi...

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...ession (e.g., Gibb, Benas, Grassia, & McGeary, 2009; Joormann, Talbot, & Gotlib, 2007) has demonstrated selective attention to mood congruent stimuli (e.g., selective attention to sad words or faces; =-=Matthews & MacLeod, 2005-=-), and rumination could be responsible for these findings (Donaldson, Lam, & Matthews, 2007). Although selective attention to negative stimuli could be an antecedent of rumination, selective attention...

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... youth. Implications for the measurement of rumination as well as treatment are discussed. Rumination (also known as depressive rumination or brooding) is one of several forms of repetitive thinking (=-=Watkins, 2008-=-). According to the response styles theory, ‘‘rumination is a mode of responding to distress that involves repetitively and passively focusing on symptoms of distress and on the possible causes and co...

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...hought itself may not be harmful, but the inability to disengage from the process may be what is pathological (Daches et al., 2010; Joormann, 2006; Joormann & Gotlib, 2010; Philippot & Brutoux, 2008; =-=Siegle, Steinhauer, Thase, Stenger, & Carter, 2002-=-; Watkins & Brown, 2002). We found that the failure-todisengage group had higher concurrent depressive symptoms than the group who disengaged from negative self-referential thought. Next steps in test...

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...hinking (e.g., Why did this happen to me? Why am I feeling so bad?) may help individuals to process, reflect upon, and understand difficult interpersonal situations and prevent future mistakes (e.g., =-=Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1993-=-; Papageorgiou & Wells, 2001). Consistent with this view, attention to problems is an important component of successful self-regulation (Carver & Scheier, 1998) and to normative social development. By...

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...ation among depressed individuals and children at risk for depression (Joormann & Gotlib, 2006; Joormann et al., 2007), and depressive symptoms have been associated with a bias away from happy faces (=-=Bradley, Mogg, Falla, & Hamilton, 1998-=-). Perhaps rumination is also responsible for these findings, in that individuals prone to ruminate may disregard positive information in the environment that would otherwise be able to help distract ...

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... were excluded. Less than 5% of the data were excluded based on these criteria. Attention bias to emotion faces (sad or happy) compared to neutral faces was computed using the following equation (cf. =-=Mogg, Bradley, & Williams, 1995-=-): Attentional bias score 1=2 ðRpLeRpReÞ þ ðLpRe LpLeÞ where R indicates right position, L indicates left position, p indicates probe, and e indicates emotional face. In this equation, RpLe repr...

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... RUMINATION AND DEPRESSED MOOD The vast majority of research on rumination has focused on its role in vulnerability to depressive symptoms and disorder. Rumination appears to be a stable trait (e.g., =-=Roberts, Gilboa, & Gotlib, 1998-=-). Studies using self-report measures of trait rumination show that it is associated with self-reported depression as well as clinical diagnosis, concurrently and prospectively (see Nolen-Hoeksema et ...

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...ease its likelihood of triggering rumination (Wisco, 2009). We also wanted a task that was interpersonal in nature, because peer stress is commonly reported among adolescents, especially girls (e.g., =-=Hankin, Mermelstein, & Roesch, 2007-=-; see Rose & Rudolph, 2006, for a review), and is a likely theme of rumination among adolescents. Participants were told that they had the opportunity to audition for a new reality television show and...

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... the results. 8 HILT AND POLLAK D ow nl oa de dsbys[L aw ren cesU niv ers ity ] a t 0 8:2 7 0 4 A pr il 2 01 3sprevious research using both a 1,250-ms and 500-ms dot-probe task (Bradley et al., 1998; =-=Bradley, Mogg, & Millar, 2000-=-), and our finding suggests this may have been due to rumination. This finding is consistent with previous research showing that ruminators are less willing to engage in pleasant activities, even when...

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...pression (Joormann et al., 2007), and we use a 1,500-ms stimulus duration based on literature suggesting that depression-relevant biases typically emerge at relatively longer durations of 1 to 1.5 s (=-=Mogg & Bradley, 2005-=-). THE PRESENT STUDY We designed this experiment to examine the ruminative process in real time and predict which youth would engage in persistent rumination following a self-relevant negative event. ...

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...ich is more often examined in studies of state rumination). The tendency to ruminate on negative mood is highly correlated with the tendency to ruminate on stressful events (assessed via self-report; =-=Robinson & Alloy, 2003-=-). A central tenant of the response styles theory (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991) is that vulnerability for psychopathology most likely lies not in the engagement of negative self-referential thinking but rath...

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...apted from a similar task designed for children (Joormann et al., 2007). A set of 19 faces, each expressing happy, sad, and neutral emotions, was selected from the MacArthur Network Face Stimuli Set (=-=Tottenham, Borscheid, Ellertsen, Marcus, & Nelson, 2002-=-). Faces with the highest reliability scores for rater identification of the correct emotional expression were chosen (Tottenham et al., 2009), including an equal number of male and female faces of di...

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...supporting the idea that negative self-referential thought itself may not be harmful, but the inability to disengage from the process may be what is pathological (Daches et al., 2010; Joormann, 2006; =-=Joormann & Gotlib, 2010-=-; Philippot & Brutoux, 2008; Siegle, Steinhauer, Thase, Stenger, & Carter, 2002; Watkins & Brown, 2002). We found that the failure-todisengage group had higher concurrent depressive symptoms than the ...

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...to disengage from the process may be what is pathological (Daches et al., 2010; Joormann, 2006; Joormann & Gotlib, 2010; Philippot & Brutoux, 2008; Siegle, Steinhauer, Thase, Stenger, & Carter, 2002; =-=Watkins & Brown, 2002-=-). We found that the failure-todisengage group had higher concurrent depressive symptoms than the group who disengaged from negative self-referential thought. Next steps in testing and elaborating thi...

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...nes or other personal items during the study. Self-Report Measures Trait rumination. We assessed trait rumination using the Rumination subscale from the Children’s Response Style Questionnaire (CRSQ; =-=Abela, Brozina, & Haigh, 2002-=-). For each item, children are asked to rate how often they respond in that way when they feel sad on a 4-point Likert scale: 0 (almost never), 1 (sometimes), 2 (often), and 3 (almost always). The rel...

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...guished between concrete (focusing on the experience) and abstract (focusing on the cause, meaning, and consequence) forms of rumination and find that the abstract form is maladaptive (Watkins, 2010; =-=Watkins & Teasdale, 2004-=-). It is possible that these definitional distinctions could explain why rumination may seem to have both adaptive and maladaptive components. For the present study, we focus specifically on ruminatio...

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...tive cycle. In this way, a negativity bias may kindle and fuel the ruminative process. Research on individuals with depression and at risk for depression (e.g., Gibb, Benas, Grassia, & McGeary, 2009; =-=Joormann, Talbot, & Gotlib, 2007-=-) has demonstrated selective attention to mood congruent stimuli (e.g., selective attention to sad words or faces; Matthews & MacLeod, 2005), and rumination could be responsible for these findings (Do...

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...n that may lead to different outcomes. For example, the reflective aspect of rumination may be benign or even adaptive, whereas the brooding aspect is related to depressive symptoms and difficulties (=-=Burwell & Shirk, 2007-=-; Joormann, Dkane & Gotlib, 2006; Treynor, Gonzalez, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2003). Others have distinguished between concrete (focusing on the experience) and abstract (focusing on the cause, meaning, and ...

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...o me? Why am I feeling so bad?) may help individuals to process, reflect upon, and understand difficult interpersonal situations and prevent future mistakes (e.g., Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1993; =-=Papageorgiou & Wells, 2001-=-). Consistent with this view, attention to problems is an important component of successful self-regulation (Carver & Scheier, 1998) and to normative social development. By orienting attention to pote...

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...pical (i.e., not at-risk) youth (Joormann et al., 2007). Previous research has identified difficulties processing positive information among depressed individuals and children at risk for depression (=-=Joormann & Gotlib, 2006-=-; Joormann et al., 2007), and depressive symptoms have been associated with a bias away from happy faces (Bradley, Mogg, Falla, & Hamilton, 1998). Perhaps rumination is also responsible for these find...

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...es suggest that rumination also impairs problem solving, especially for interpersonal problems (Donaldson & Lam, 2004; Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1995; Lyubomirsky, Tucker, Caldwell, & Berg, 1999; =-=Watkins & Baracaia, 2002-=-), so what may start out as a normative process can also lead to dysfunction. Some researchers have suggested that there are different subtypes of rumination that may lead to different outcomes. For e...

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... of state rumination. Some previous research demonstrating an association between trait and state rumination has used similar measurement of the two constructs (e.g., self-report using Likert scales; =-=Moberly & Watkins, 2008-=-). In the present study, we used self-report of trait rumination using Likert scales and coded thoughts for state rumination, which likely limited shared method variance. It will be important for futu...

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...nd having them coded by independent raters. RUMINATION AND SELECTIVE ATTENTION One way to unpack the process of a complex construct like rumination is to focus on more discrete underlying mechanisms (=-=Pollak, 2005-=-), and one mechanism that is particularly relevant is attention. Rumination seems to involve a narrowing of attention much like tunnel vision. For example, the longer one ruminates, the more fully abs...

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...itive negative thought process. We were surprised that the ruminators in our sample did not show biases for sad faces. Such biases for depressed individuals are frequently reported in the literature (=-=Gotlib & Krasnoperova, 1998-=-; Wisco, 2009). Our sample of youth was not clinically depressed. It may be the case that although rumination predicts depression, the emergence of depressive disorders may involve distinct cognitive ...

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...tion did not maintain or induce negative self-referential thinking in many participants. Rumination inductions have been used to successfully increase negative affect in youth in prior studies (e.g., =-=Park, Goodyer, & Teasdale, 2004-=-); however, the audio format is novel, and this delivery mode may not have been as effective. It is also possible that the rumination induction was not particularly effective because we utilized a com...

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...lmost never), 1 (sometimes), 2 (often), and 3 (almost always). The reliability and validity of the CRSQ, as well as its subscales, have been demonstrated in several studies (e.g., Abela et al., 2002; =-=Abela, Aydin, & Auerbach, 2007-=-). We modified the directions slightly to ask children to respond based on what they do when they feel sad or stressed in order to examine rumination as a response to distress, in line with current co...

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...sent) to 2 (symptom present and severe), and higher scores indicate higher levels of depression. The Children’s Depression Inventory has sound psychometric properties, including internal consistency (=-=Reynolds, 1994-=-), test–retest reliability, and discriminant validity (Kovacs, 1992). Internal consistency for the present sample was good (a .91). Assessment of Negative Self-Referential Thought We wanted to captur...

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...cesses associated with rumination has focused on adults and examined difficulty with disengagement of attention, especially from negative information (Daches, Mor, Winquist, & GilboaSchechtman, 2010; =-=Joormann, 2006-=-; Jormann & Gotlib, 2010; Linville, 1996). In the present study, we were interested in examining whether selective attention may be associated with rumination among youth. Selective attention to negat...

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...problem solving (Andrews & Thompson, 2009; Martin & Tesser, 1996; Watkins, 2010). Yet experimental studies suggest that rumination also impairs problem solving, especially for interpersonal problems (=-=Donaldson & Lam, 2004-=-; Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1995; Lyubomirsky, Tucker, Caldwell, & Berg, 1999; Watkins & Baracaia, 2002), so what may start out as a normative process can also lead to dysfunction. Some researcher...

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...07) has demonstrated selective attention to mood congruent stimuli (e.g., selective attention to sad words or faces; Matthews & MacLeod, 2005), and rumination could be responsible for these findings (=-=Donaldson, Lam, & Matthews, 2007-=-). Although selective attention to negative stimuli could be an antecedent of rumination, selective attention for negative information may also be common among ruminators because this type of informat...

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...cused on adults and examined difficulty with disengagement of attention, especially from negative information (Daches, Mor, Winquist, & GilboaSchechtman, 2010; Joormann, 2006; Jormann & Gotlib, 2010; =-=Linville, 1996-=-). In the present study, we were interested in examining whether selective attention may be associated with rumination among youth. Selective attention to negative stimuli may orient ruminators toward...

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...e rumination may have been confounded by mood because dysphoric participants’ ratings of the degree to which they were focusing on their feelings and problems could be overinflated (for a review, see =-=Kihlstrom, Eich, Sandbrand, & Tobias, 2000-=-). In addition, rumination was assessed as a momentary process, limiting an understanding of some of its temporal properties (e.g., duration). We attempted to overcome these limitations in the present...

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...negative self-referential thought itself may not be harmful, but the inability to disengage from the process may be what is pathological (Daches et al., 2010; Joormann, 2006; Joormann & Gotlib, 2010; =-=Philippot & Brutoux, 2008-=-; Siegle, Steinhauer, Thase, Stenger, & Carter, 2002; Watkins & Brown, 2002). We found that the failure-todisengage group had higher concurrent depressive symptoms than the group who disengaged from n...

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...development. By orienting attention to potential problems or environmental threats, some degree of negative self-focus may facilitate problem solving (Andrews & Thompson, 2009; Martin & Tesser, 1996; =-=Watkins, 2010-=-). Yet experimental studies suggest that rumination also impairs problem solving, especially for interpersonal problems (Donaldson & Lam, 2004; Lyubomirsky & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1995; Lyubomirsky, Tucker,...

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...contribute to a growing body of work supporting the idea that negative self-referential thought itself may not be harmful, but the inability to disengage from the process may be what is pathological (=-=Daches et al., 2010-=-; Joormann, 2006; Joormann & Gotlib, 2010; Philippot & Brutoux, 2008; Siegle, Steinhauer, Thase, Stenger, & Carter, 2002; Watkins & Brown, 2002). We found that the failure-todisengage group had higher...

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... that initiates and promotes the ruminative cycle. In this way, a negativity bias may kindle and fuel the ruminative process. Research on individuals with depression and at risk for depression (e.g., =-=Gibb, Benas, Grassia, & McGeary, 2009-=-; Joormann, Talbot, & Gotlib, 2007) has demonstrated selective attention to mood congruent stimuli (e.g., selective attention to sad words or faces; Matthews & MacLeod, 2005), and rumination could be ...

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... Participants were included regardless of depression score (Children’s Depressive Inventory scores ranged 0–29, M 6.24, SD 6.28). Because rumination has been found to be more common in girls (e.g., =-=Hilt, McLaughlin, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2010-=-), we oversampled girls (70%; n 74). Racial-ethnic backgrounds of participants included 66% Caucasian (non-Hispanic), 19% African American, 10% Asian American, 4% Hispanic, and 1% Native American. Me...

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...data). Two independent raters coded these thought responses (js .81–.92); a third rater was used to resolve any discrepancies. Attention Assessment Dot-probe task. An emotional faces dot-probe task (=-=Romens & Pollak, 2012-=-) was used to examine attentional biases related to happy and sad faces. This task was adapted from a similar task designed for children (Joormann et al., 2007). A set of 19 faces, each expressing hap...

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...ts. Participants were told that they had the opportunity to audition for a new reality television show and would be recorded giving a 3-min speech about themselves (similar to the cover story used by =-=Heilbron, Prinstein, & Hilt, 2009-=-). We played a video recorded by a supposed representative from the television network to instruct them about the audition. Next, the images of four ‘‘peers’’ appeared on the computer screen (two boys...

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... DOI: 10.1080/15374416.2013.764825 D ow nl oa de dsbys[L aw ren cesU niv ers ity ] a t 0 8:2 7 0 4 A pr il 2 01 3smeta-analysis of studies with youth also shows an effect of rumination on depression (=-=Rood, Roelofs, Bogels, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Schouten, 2009-=-). Laboratory studies have also shown an effect of rumination on mood. These studies involve a rumination induction, which typically consists of 8min of focusing on feelings along with their causes an...