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... or cognitive defect (pathological trust). 4. Trust as impulsiveness. Inappropriate weight may be given to the future consequences of a trusting choice. Compare Axelrod’s ‘shadow of the future’ here (=-=Axelrod, 1984-=-) which refers to the same thing in a different vein — behaviour in the present in terms of cooperation or defection in a Prisoners’ Dilemma is weighted by the shadow of the future — how the agent exp...

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...up being considered as an individual entity (see especially chapter 1). The idea of a number of ‘agents’ coming together to form a whole is not, in itself, an unpopular one. Minsky’s Society of Mind (=-=Minsky, 1986-=-) is a seminal work in this particular area. There are others, relating to different aspects of groups, but nonetheless of importance. We have ignored many of the aspects of groups in this work. The r...

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...ans towards Luhmann and away from Deutsch in viewing trust “predominantly as a phenomenon of social structural and cultural variables and not . . . as a function of individual personality variables” (=-=Barber, 1983-=-, page 5). Barber’s view of trust is that it is an aspect of all social relationships. Moreover, it implies some form of expectation about the future (see Barber, 1983 , page 7. See also chapter 2 of ...

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...sting (actually by increasing its trust value to a level at which, and above which, cooperation would ensue). The taking of a risk is an essential part of attempting to build a trusting relationship (=-=Lewis & Weigert, 1985-=-), and it is useful to see how much of a risk has to be taken to prompt such trusting. There are, naturally, different answers to this, depending on which agent we are trying to educate. This experime...

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...d up in hospital because of some accident that we trust will not happen. Despite its importance, there has been a lack of detailed research on the topic (Golembiewski & McConkie, 1975; Luhmann, 1979; =-=Luhmann, 1990-=-). In addition, the work that has been carried out presents its own problems, not least that a solid accepted definition of trust still eludes us. The definition given by Morton Deutsch in 1962 is mor...

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...ify some problems. In addition to the tools already available for analysing multi-person interaction (e.g., Markov Chains (Suppes & Atkinson, 1960), and for larger societies, Metapopulation Dynamics (=-=Hanski & Gilpin, 1991-=-; Gilpin & Hanski, 1991)), the trust formalism provides an aspect of reason. It can help provide answers as to why these things happen in terms of individual group members. We thus observe groups from...

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...ion. It concerns what intelligence actually is: how it works and how to represent it. There are, within AI, several schools of thought, from the view that intelligence is the manipulation of symbols (=-=Newell & Simon, 1976-=-) to the ability to pass the Turing Test (Turing, 1950). Needless to say, AI has problems regarding its identity (Schank, 1991). The same conceptual problems apply to the trust formalism presented her...

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...ead. Deutsch states that “cooperation breeds new motives, attitudes, values, and capabilities.” (Deutsch, 1962, page 275). As early as 1949, Deutsch developed a theory of cooperation and competition (=-=Deutsch, 1949-=-a; Deutsch, 1949b), and associated experiments to attempt to justify his hypotheses. Indeed, this work bears a resemblance to the work Deutsch did later with trust and cooperation. In common with othe...

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...; finally, the bad result is more harming than the good result is beneficial. If the individual chooses to go down that path, he can be said to have made a trusting choice, if not, he is distrustful (=-=Deutsch, 1962-=-). This definition is acceptable to the extent that the basic structure of a trusting choice is shown. There is disagreement as to the idea that the benefits should be less than the harm done, however...

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...reater understanding of the world and its inhabitants (see, for example, Bill Coderre’s PetWorld (Coderre, 1989), or Pattie Maes’s experiments with the selection of actions (Maes, 1990c; Maes, 1990b; =-=Maes, 1991-=-; Maes, 1991), see especially Maes (1990a). Also on action selection, see Tyrell (1993)). Artificial Life’s major drawback concerns its lack of intelligence, the lack of, in this instance, purposive d...

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...non, and is present wherever societies exist (Yamamoto, 1990; Baier, 1986). It is from that viewpoint that we approach DAI/MAS — since there must exist a society of agents (whether we like it or not (=-=Gasser, 1991-=-)), then trust, implicit or explicit, is present. At this juncture, the trust is implicitly assumed — “It is absolutely essential . . . that the agents are known to be trustworthy; the model would hav...

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...lthough occasionally they concern ourselves or the environment in which we exist (Luhmann, 1979). In that sense, trust is a social phenomenon, and is present wherever societies exist (Yamamoto, 1990; =-=Baier, 1986-=-). It is from that viewpoint that we approach DAI/MAS — since there must exist a society of agents (whether we like it or not (Gasser, 1991)), then trust, implicit or explicit, is present. At this jun...

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...trust in such a way that behaviour may improve or efficiency increase. Indeed, the area of Human Computer Interaction has in the past received some input regarding trust from other areas (Muir, 1987; =-=Lee & Moray, 1994-=-). The identification of other potentially fruitful areas is an interminable task, and one which is unnecessary for this work. It is undoubtedly the case that such areas do exist, and further work cou...

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...valents of each other (Luhmann, 1979; Luhmann, 1990). 14 This corresponds directly to the notion of fiduciary trust for Barber, see above.sCHAPTER 3. TRUST 37 orders to take him closer to the Sirens (=-=Elster, 1979-=-). Such a form of pre-commitment is usually applied towards others, so that they may rely on, or trust, us. On a weaker note, contracts and promises are made, not physically binding, but costly to ren...

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...mptions hold true, since agents should be rational. The rational agent will, for example, act to increase expected utility (Simon, 1955; Preston, 1961; von Martial, 1992) and to survive in the world (=-=Hobbes, 1946-=-) thus obeying assumption 2. Assumption 3, concerning the assumptions agents make of others, is perhaps more interesting in that it involves the 11 We do not include all of Deutsch’s assumptions since...

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...pt is impressive, and contains philosophers such as Pythagoras, Plato and Aristotle, artists such as Michelangelo and Pacioli (who rediscovered the Golden Section), mathematicians, and psychologists (=-=Birkhoff, 1933-=-). The length of the list is an indication of the prevalent thesis that such notions could be understood better if mathematics were to be used. Some of those mentioned are artists, particularly musici...

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...etting up a windows workstation such that the windows are in their correct place for that user. Much of the work in HCI can be seen as trying to increase the amount of trust between user and machine (=-=Muir, 1987-=-) 1 . The exclusion of humans as agents does not lessen the scope of trust a great deal. There are areas where computers and computers work together in a social fashion. For example, the telephone net...

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... of independent agents, its behaviour can be readily investigated and observed, and anomalies detected. • There is a wide range of potential and actual applications for DAI, from Air Traffic Control (=-=Cammarata et al., 1983-=-) to Open Informations Systems (Hewitt, 1991). Trust can potentially be implemented and observed in realisations of many such spheres, and its behaviour and influence detected and refined over time. 3...

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...ury. Note that this is not the same definition of altruism that is used in biology: “Biologists define behaviour as altruistic if it favours other individuals at the expense of the altruist itself.” (=-=Dawkins, 1989-=-a, page 57). Ours differs from this only in that we restrict the situations to benevolent ones. Payment to x If x is not an altruist, and not in debt to either of the other two agents, they may be abl...

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...nvestigated and observed, and anomalies detected. • There is a wide range of potential and actual applications for DAI, from Air Traffic Control (Cammarata et al., 1983) to Open Informations Systems (=-=Hewitt, 1991-=-). Trust can potentially be implemented and observed in realisations of many such spheres, and its behaviour and influence detected and refined over time. 3.5.2 Amalgamation The implementations to be ...

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...latively youthful and vigorous, with much of its potential still to be discovered. It has been acknowledged, however, that DAI is a useful tool for modelling societies and aspects of those societies (=-=Bond & Gasser, 1988-=-), and lately, such research has been carried out with promising results (see, for example Drogoul and Ferber, 1992). The thesis extends it further, however, since we use DAI as a tool for examining t...

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...Removal The domain of furniture removal is a constrained example of what could, in future, be expected from embodied agents — the sort of work which is heavy, messy, and potentially physically risky (=-=Ferguson, 1992-=-). For more physical risk, there is always work in nuclear installations, or in space. (As an aside, enlightening presentations of this concept, albeit in idealised forms, are to be found in Isaac Asi...

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...t and the learned professions, these expectations become more sensible than if we consider trust in romantic relationships or friendships (see Rempel, Holmes and Zanna, 1985, Rempel and Holmes, 1986, =-=Boon and Holmes, 1991-=-). Thus, we expect professionals to behave in a responsible fashion towards us, neither ‘blinding us with science’ nor attempting to ‘pull the wool over our eyes.’ However, in a general sense, trust i...

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...at. As a subject of study, it provides a wide vista of possibilities, from artificial reasoning (Georgeff, 1984; Chapman & Agre, 1987; Hayes-Roth et al., 1991) to a model of complex social phenomena (=-=Castelfranchi et al., 1991-=-; Numaoka, 1991; Drogoul & Ferber, 1992). The trust discussed so far has to some extent been concerned with an extension to the reasoning capabilities of agents. This section discusses other areas whe...

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...restingly different view of trust, and a society built around it. Legal considerations and extensions are given in the following section, based primarily on Minsky’s work with law-governed societies (=-=Minsky, 1991-=-b; Minsky, 1991a). The final two sections consider alternative formalisms, extensions to the present formalism, and other aspects which this research has uncovered. 8.2 Distributed Artificial Intellig...

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...ddition to the tools already available for analysing multi-person interaction (e.g., Markov Chains (Suppes & Atkinson, 1960), and for larger societies, Metapopulation Dynamics (Hanski & Gilpin, 1991; =-=Gilpin & Hanski, 1991-=-)), the trust formalism provides an aspect of reason. It can help provide answers as to why these things happen in terms of individual group members. We thus observe groups from a micro, not a macro l...

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...id., page 133, my emphasis). We proceed to accept the idea that:sCHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 4 Trust implies some degree of uncertainty as to outcome. Trust implies hopefulness or optimism as to outcome. =-=Golembiewski and McConkie, 1975-=-, page 133. Trust is thus strongly linked to confidence in some thing, be it the person to be trusted, the environment, or whatever it is that the desirable outcome is contingent upon. 3 We arrive at ...

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...owever, that DAI is a useful tool for modelling societies and aspects of those societies (Bond & Gasser, 1988), and lately, such research has been carried out with promising results (see, for example =-=Drogoul and Ferber, 1992-=-). The thesis extends it further, however, since we use DAI as a tool for examining the formalism we present, and commenting on its performance in implementation (see chapter 7). The conclusion is tha...

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...ury. Note that this is not the same definition of altruism that is used in biology: “Biologists define behaviour as altruistic if it favours other individuals at the expense of the altruist itself.” (=-=Dawkins, 1989-=-a, page 57). Ours differs from this only in that we restrict the situations to benevolent ones. Payment to x If x is not an altruist, and not in debt to either of the other two agents, they may be abl...

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... perceive themselves to be interdependent with that group, particularly if it is in competition with another (Argyle, 1991). Whilst acknowledging the importance and undoubted benefits of competition (=-=Galliers, 1989-=-), it is safe to assert that cooperation is often a beneficial strategy, particularly for those cooperating. 16 Taking such benefits into account, the question remains as to where trust plays a part i...

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...er, time is valuable too, and clearly the sensible approach to this problem of processing limits is to develop a scheme in which extensive intellectual work is only done under certain circumstances” (=-=Good, 1990-=-, page 42). Trust allows such limits to be addressed, as it allows the truster to assume that certain things are ‘as given,’ thus plans do not need to be made to allow for particular circumstances. Th...

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...rns costs and benefits. The fact that they are mentioned at all is of importance — Deutsch is suggesting that trusting decisions are based on some form of cost/benefit analysis (Shapiro et al., 1992; =-=Dasgupta & Pearce, 1972-=-), and in fact, this assumption is carried through by many other definitions of trust, in one form or another (Shapiro et al., 1992; Golembiewski & McConkie, 1975). When we consider cooperation, the i...

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...ed by the single word ‘trust.’ Situations involving trust constitute a subclass of those involving risk. They are situations in which the risk one takes depends on the performance of another actor.” (=-=Coleman, 1990-=-, page 91). Thus, the bat displays trust. Of course, the bats who continually reciprocate as a group attain an evolutionary advantage over their non-reciprocating neighbours, since those who reciproca...

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... & McConkie, 1975), greater and more healthy personal development (ibid.), an understanding, or at least an acceptance, of the complexity of our society (Luhmann, 1979), and the ability to cooperate (=-=Argyle, 1991-=-; Deutsch, 1962), 1 to quote some authorities. There are many views of trust (Barber, 1983; Shapiro, 1987), and there are more than a few reasons for this. Two of these reasons stand out to be present...

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...t, while interactions of reciprocators and non-cooperators will quickly cease. Thus reciprocators will be more likely than non-cooperators to receive the benefits of the cooperative acts of others.” (=-=Boyd & Richerson, 1991-=-, pages 28–29). Considerations of reciprocation can easily be added to the formalism in order to allow a deepening of the consideration of one agent or situation by another. We provide an example of a...

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... agent making a model of another and the other’s plans, and about the world. In situated action, the agent behaves in a completely reactive manner, thus models are not possible (Agre & Chapman, 1987; =-=Chapman & Agre, 1987-=-) and unnecessary. For Hobbes, everyone was in a state of ‘war against all,’ thus the only model that was to be made concerned the potential harm to be had from the actions of others (Hobbes, 1946, ch...

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...) he perceives that the occurrence of Va + or Va − is contingent on the behaviour of another person; and 6 Embedding morality into simple agents is, in fact, what Danielson has done (Danielson, 1990; =-=Danielson, 1992-=-b; Danielson, 1992a).sCHAPTER 3. TRUST 26 (c) he perceives the strength of Va − to be greater than the strength of Va + . If he chooses to take an ambiguous path with such properties, I shall say he m...

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...g. The formalism presented here is solely the author’s. Early realisations of the formalism have been published elsewhere, in Marsh (1992, 1993), and Marsh and Thimbleby (1992). A recent publication (=-=Marsh 1994-=-b) presents a revised version of the formalism, and in Marsh (1994a), the formalism is applied extensively to considerations of dispositions, as discussed in chapter 4. In addition, work on extending ...

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...producing, once again, a greater understanding of the world and its inhabitants (see, for example, Bill Coderre’s PetWorld (Coderre, 1989), or Pattie Maes’s experiments with the selection of actions (=-=Maes, 1990-=-c; Maes, 1990b; Maes, 1991; Maes, 1991), see especially Maes (1990a). Also on action selection, see Tyrell (1993)). Artificial Life’s major drawback concerns its lack of intelligence, the lack of, in ...

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...ts will perform a particular action, both before he can monitor such action (or independently of his capacity ever to be able to monitor it 14 ) and in a context in which it affects his own action.” (=-=Gambetta, 1990-=-a, page 217). As the final part of this definition suggests, trust is a means of coping with the freedom of others, and how this affects us (Luhmann, 1979; Dunn, 1990). In other words, trusting a pers...

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... it affects his own action.” (Gambetta, 1990a, page 217). As the final part of this definition suggests, trust is a means of coping with the freedom of others, and how this affects us (Luhmann, 1979; =-=Dunn, 1990-=-). In other words, trusting a person means that the truster takes a chance that the trustee will not behave in a way that is damaging to the truster, given that choice. Gambetta’s definition excludes ...

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..., we find it mentioned in fields as diverse (it seems at first glance) as evolutionary biology (Bateson, 1990), sociology (Luhmann, 1979; Luhmann, 1990), social psychology (Deutsch, 1962), economics (=-=Hart et al., 1990-=-; Dasgupta, 1990), history (Gambetta, 1990b; Pagden, 1990), and philosophy (Lagenspetz, 1992; Hertzberg, 1988; Wittgenstein, 1977). The question arises: are these examples as diverse as they may seem?...

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...sterile confines of the research laboratory), we must make them more robust in respect of their interdependence with others, their reliance on others. Relying on others’ good behaviour is not enough (=-=Marsh, 1992-=-). An argument of the present work is that the incorporation of trust into an intelligent agent’s considerations of others will be a step forward in providing the needed robustness, without losing any...

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...st that we are trying to simulate. The decisions we make in everyday life, however, take into account far more than trust (Danielson, 1992a; Agre & Chapman, 1987; Chapman & Agre, 1987; Luhmann, 1979; =-=Kiss & Reichgelt, 1991-=-). Not least, ethics, morals, cultural pressures, and the wants and needs of the decision maker are of importance. The argument that trust plays a major part in such decision making does not detract f...

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...trustworthy also, and clearly neither assumption can be justified in the ‘wider world’ that exists outside the research labs. Nevertheless, there are situations within which cooperation is necessary (=-=Connah & Wavish, 1990-=-; Marsh, 1992), and others where, although cooperation may be necessary, there is a choice about who to cooperate with (Marsh, 1992). In both of these types of situation, the behaviour of the formalis...

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...accepted usage of the word) lets us down, or betrays our trust. When that happens, they are trusted less, if at all. Betrayal of our trust is not our responsibility, rather it is that of the trustee (=-=Hertzberg, 1988-=-). This is because “trust can only concern that which one person can rightly demand of another.” (Hertzberg, 1988, page 319). This thesis is concerned with the introduction of a formalism for trust. I...

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...producing, once again, a greater understanding of the world and its inhabitants (see, for example, Bill Coderre’s PetWorld (Coderre, 1989), or Pattie Maes’s experiments with the selection of actions (=-=Maes, 1990-=-c; Maes, 1990b; Maes, 1991; Maes, 1991), see especially Maes (1990a). Also on action selection, see Tyrell (1993)). Artificial Life’s major drawback concerns its lack of intelligence, the lack of, in ...

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...rit some discussion. The idea of negotiation is not a futile one: occasionally negotiation produces results. There has been much work on negotiation for problem solving (Sycara, 1988; Galliers, 1989; =-=Chang and Woo, 1991-=-; Zlotkin and Rosenschein, 1992), and some work on reaching consensus planssCHAPTER 5. USING THE FORMALISM 88 that maximise social welfare (Ephrati, 1992). All of these could be useful in the negotiat...

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... dynamism (Golembiewski & McConkie, 1975). Perhaps worse, we would find it very difficult to get up in the morning (Luhmann, 1979), and would suffer the inevitable collapse of our society (Bok, 1978; =-=Lagenspetz, 1992-=-). So, what if trust is present? How do we benefit? We experience far better accomplishments in task performance (Golembiewski & McConkie, 1975), greater and more healthy personal development (ibid.),...

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...cts to be treated in the future as a result of his actions in the present. 5. Trust as virtue. “Cooperative action and friendly social relations are predicated upon mutual trust and trustworthiness” (=-=Deutsch, 1973-=-, page 147). Thus trust is naturally considered a virtue in social life. See also the quotes at the start of this chapter — once it is realised that trust is indeed of such importance for society, its...

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... variables are of importance. Trust is a social phenomenon (one trusts oneself, but one also trusts others). Indeed, if trust is in fact a method for coping with the freedom of others (Luhmann, 1979; =-=Dunn, 1984-=-; Gambetta, 1990a), then it cannot be anything but social. Trust, then, does not operate merely on a personal level, but also on a social level. Without both levels, we do not see the whole picture. I...

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...ies as a whole or in interactions with other strategies (or themselves), and could be used in a form of ‘survival of the fittest’ to show the relative evolutionary stability of particular strategies (=-=Lomborg, 1992-=-). In short, the PD provides us with a seemingly ideal tool for performing research and fine tuning trust strategies. There are drawbacks to its use, however: 1. The PD is by its very nature confronta...

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...l witnesses observe. Each witness will see things differently, noticing different details, and possibly wildly incorrect features about the happening. These differences come out in questioning later (=-=Deffenbacher, 1991-=-). The case with trust is similar, in that different agent’s perceptions are different, thus, their estimate of costs (Va − ) and benefits (Va + ) will be different. A second observation that can be m...

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...sui generis object, one which is irreducible to its members, and purely a moral order (Frisby & Sayer, 1986, especially chapter 2). This is akin to the properties of emergence in distributed systems (=-=Forrest, 1990-=-; Wavish, 1991), thus society is seen as emergent by Durkheim. Other sociologists, however, see it from a different angle, as “the network of shared understandings, the cognitive and communicative com...

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...l, society. We are concerned with the former aspect here. Barber’s view of trust, as Luhmann’s, is inherently sociological, and both in fact have roots in the work of Talcott Parsons (see for example =-=Parsons, 1970-=-). They are, then, functional accounts of the workings of particular aspects of society. For Luhmann, one of the functions of trust is to reduce the complexity inherent in the environment, thus allowi...

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...lementations and Experiments There are two major implementations that have been carried through for this work. Both are concerned with the Iterated Prisoner’s Dilemma (PD) (Axelrod, 1984; Behr, 1981; =-=Dolbear & Lave, 1967-=-). There are reasons for this choice. 1. The PD is a well-known, well-understood ‘game,’ in the social sciences and in computing. Consequently, any results or insights gained in the experiments carrie...

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...s work bears a resemblance to the work Deutsch did later with trust and cooperation. In common with other researchers, many of Deutsch’s hypotheses concerned groups and their feelings towards others (=-=McNeel et al., 1974-=-). Thus, members of cooperative groups perceive themselves to be interdependent with that group, particularly if it is in competition with another (Argyle, 1991). Whilst acknowledging the importance a...

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... according to various routing algorithms, which way to send messages around the network, and so forth. This can lead to unexpected, emergent, behaviour (e.g., the AT&T long distance collapse in 1990 (=-=Neumann, 1992-=-)). That the computers work together socially is perhaps a contentious 1 I am grateful to Harold Thimbleby for pointing this out.sCHAPTER 8. FUTURE DIRECTIONS 133 and nonsensical argument, but emergen...

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...nded further in the following chapter (see specifically section 5.2.3), it presents a straightforward notion of cooperation which is deeper than many (e.g., Tit for Tat (Axelrod, 1984; Godfray, 1992; =-=Novak and Sigmund, 1992-=-), which simply uses a memory span of one action to determine its next reaction) and less deep than others (e.g., many of the strategies used in Axelrod (1984), also planning architectures, such as AP...

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...‘Shadow of the Future’ (Axelrod, 1984), but is still inherently confrontational. This being so, it is often the case that the agents who do best are those who are perhaps less moral and defect first (=-=Behr, 1981-=-). Trust is not a confrontational phenomenon. Indeed, it serves in many cases to avert confrontations, and provides agents with the means to judge others favourably and put themselves in others’ hands...

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...strust is possible, a value of +1 for complete trust is not. There is a justification for this which is founded on philosophical ideas of trust. Trust implies a consideration of something or someone (=-=Broadie, 1991-=-). Even a value of 0 ascribed to something (when the agent knows of that something — see also chapter 6), implies some consideration of that something in order to arrive at the decision that, perhaps,...

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...ned in fields as diverse (it seems at first glance) as evolutionary biology (Bateson, 1990), sociology (Luhmann, 1979; Luhmann, 1990), social psychology (Deutsch, 1962), economics (Hart et al., 1990; =-=Dasgupta, 1990-=-), history (Gambetta, 1990b; Pagden, 1990), and philosophy (Lagenspetz, 1992; Hertzberg, 1988; Wittgenstein, 1977). The question arises: are these examples as diverse as they may seem? Clearly, the vi...

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...cal Aspects Is trusting behaviour a uniquely human phenomenon, or do other members of the biological world exhibit trust? The answer to that lies largely in delayed reciprocation in the animal world (=-=Harcourt, 1991-=-). Animals help each other out in the hope that, in the future when they need help, they will be helped back. A good example is the vampire bat. When such bats have had a good night, and a surplus of ...

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...t provides a wide vista of possibilities, from artificial reasoning (Georgeff, 1984; Chapman & Agre, 1987; Hayes-Roth et al., 1991) to a model of complex social phenomena (Castelfranchi et al., 1991; =-=Numaoka, 1991-=-; Drogoul & Ferber, 1992). The trust discussed so far has to some extent been concerned with an extension to the reasoning capabilities of agents. This section discusses other areas where a knowledge ...

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... glance) as evolutionary biology (Bateson, 1990), sociology (Luhmann, 1979; Luhmann, 1990), social psychology (Deutsch, 1962), economics (Hart et al., 1990; Dasgupta, 1990), history (Gambetta, 1990b; =-=Pagden, 1990-=-), and philosophy (Lagenspetz, 1992; Hertzberg, 1988; Wittgenstein, 1977). The question arises: are these examples as diverse as they may seem? Clearly, the view of the all-pervading nature and import...

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...n Example Heuristic Formalism “Justice is represented by a square number” Pythagoras. “. . .values are not the least vague when you’re dealing with them in terms of actual experience.” 4.1 Discussion =-=Pirsig, 1991-=-, page 63. From the previous chapters, it is clear that a unified theory for trust is lacking. In order to develop such a theory, and associated principles, it is necessary to provide a precise means ...

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...8.sCHAPTER 3. TRUST 30 agent making a model of another and the other’s plans, and about the world. In situated action, the agent behaves in a completely reactive manner, thus models are not possible (=-=Agre & Chapman, 1987-=-; Chapman & Agre, 1987) and unnecessary. For Hobbes, everyone was in a state of ‘war against all,’ thus the only model that was to be made concerned the potential harm to be had from the actions of ot...

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...viour is a difficult and complex subject. Groups have been found to behave in an aggressive manner towards members of other groups (and thus the groups themselves) with which they are in competition (=-=Brown, 1988-=-). Since we are primarily concerned with cooperation, it is educational to consider intergroup cooperation. According to Brown (1988), intergroup cooperation increases positive intergroup feelings as ...

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...) he perceives that the occurrence of Va + or Va − is contingent on the behaviour of another person; and 6 Embedding morality into simple agents is, in fact, what Danielson has done (Danielson, 1990; =-=Danielson, 1992-=-b; Danielson, 1992a).sCHAPTER 3. TRUST 26 (c) he perceives the strength of Va − to be greater than the strength of Va + . If he chooses to take an ambiguous path with such properties, I shall say he m...

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... 20 Whilst emergent behaviour can arise in DAI, or any other complex system. Also, DAI, as a superset of AL, can make use of reactive aspects of agents (Chapman & Agre, 1987; Spector & Hendler, 1990; =-=Downs & Reichgelt, 1990-=-) 21 It is granted that, in animals, trusting behaviour, such as in the form of delayed reciprocation, can and does take place (Harcourt, 1991). Indeed, in this work, we take such an open view of trus...

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...o to cooperate with, the law, and how legal aspects in society can help agents in making trusting decisions. 7 For example, the Michigan Intelligent Coordination Experiment (MICE) language, or MAGSY (=-=Fischer, 1993-=-). See also Hanks et al. (1993) for a review of some of the testbeds that are in use today.sChapter 5 Using the Formalism 5.1 Discussion Chapter 4 discussed the concept that trust can be formalised, a...

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...it seems at first glance) as evolutionary biology (Bateson, 1990), sociology (Luhmann, 1979; Luhmann, 1990), social psychology (Deutsch, 1962), economics (Hart et al., 1990; Dasgupta, 1990), history (=-=Gambetta, 1990-=-b; Pagden, 1990), and philosophy (Lagenspetz, 1992; Hertzberg, 1988; Wittgenstein, 1977). The question arises: are these examples as diverse as they may seem? Clearly, the view of the all-pervading na...

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...to justify the use of trust, particularly in cooperative situations. DAI, however, goes further than that. As a subject of study, it provides a wide vista of possibilities, from artificial reasoning (=-=Georgeff, 1984-=-; Chapman & Agre, 1987; Hayes-Roth et al., 1991) to a model of complex social phenomena (Castelfranchi et al., 1991; Numaoka, 1991; Drogoul & Ferber, 1992). The trust discussed so far has to some exte...

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...y of the principles and formulæ presented thus far in the thesis discuss rationality in greater or lesser detail. Since we would wish to assume that our agents are rational (Simon, 1955; Simon, 1981; =-=Gladstone, 1961-=-), these have suggested what rules rational trusting should follow. We collect and expand them here. 6.6.1 Ordering relationships The rational agent will have trust values satisfying the following rel...

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...ough it is extended further in the following chapter (see specifically section 5.2.3), it presents a straightforward notion of cooperation which is deeper than many (e.g., Tit for Tat (Axelrod, 1984; =-=Godfray, 1992-=-; Novak and Sigmund, 1992), which simply uses a memory span of one action to determine its next reaction) and less deep than others (e.g., many of the strategies used in Axelrod (1984), also planning ...

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...oblem in individuals (Dasgupta, 1990), but is not generally subject to sanctions.sCHAPTER 3. TRUST 28 friendship. This may be one reason why credulity is more morally acceptable than distrustfulness (=-=Hartmann, 1932-=-). 3. Trust as innocence. The choice of a course of action may be made upon little understanding of the dangers inherent in the choice. This innocence may be rooted in lack of information, cognitive i...

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...rly in cooperative situations. DAI, however, goes further than that. As a subject of study, it provides a wide vista of possibilities, from artificial reasoning (Georgeff, 1984; Chapman & Agre, 1987; =-=Hayes-Roth et al., 1991-=-) to a model of complex social phenomena (Castelfranchi et al., 1991; Numaoka, 1991; Drogoul & Ferber, 1992). The trust discussed so far has to some extent been concerned with an extension to the reas...

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...hic AI systems, with no interaction with each othersCHAPTER 4. AN EXAMPLE HEURISTIC FORMALISM 61 at all, since none would be needed. Not only is this unrealistic, but even for traditional AI systems (=-=Hewitt, 1992-=-), it is becoming less applicable (Gasser, 1991). In considering cooperation there are some questions which need to be asked (Marsh, 1992): • With whom to cooperate. • To what extent cooperation shoul...

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...bid. From this point of view, cooperation and collaboration are very similar. They differ since in cooperation, individuals work more independently and exchange information (or help) where necessary (=-=Jones, 1990-=-). Coordination is essential in a cooperative or collaborative task, but we address it in a cursory manner only in this work. We are more concerned with aspects of cooperation, such as why it should h...

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... applied extensively to considerations of dispositions, as discussed in chapter 4. In addition, work on extending the formalism’s application to CSCW has been presented in Thimbleby et al. (1994) and =-=Jones et al., 1994-=-, the contents of which were based on the author’s work on the formalism. The texts of Marsh (1992, 1993, 1994a, 1994b) are presented in appendix C, and Marsh (1993, 1994a) are available as Technical ...

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...For Hobbes, everyone was in a state of ‘war against all,’ thus the only model that was to be made concerned the potential harm to be had from the actions of others (Hobbes, 1946, chapter 13, see also =-=Kavka, 1983-=-). In more deliberative systems, a knowledge of others is much more important (von Martial, 1992), particularly where coordination is required. Trust is one such model, or an aspect of a more detailed...

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...s extended and commented on in chapter 8, which provides a deeper consideration based on work presented in Minsky (1991a,1991b). A major consideration of legal systems is that things are made formal (=-=Kowalski, 1993-=-). In other words, for cooperative situations, for example, contracts are entered into which must be fulfilled or forfeited. It makes little difference whether either party is entering into the contra...

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...producing, once again, a greater understanding of the world and its inhabitants (see, for example, Bill Coderre’s PetWorld (Coderre, 1989), or Pattie Maes’s experiments with the selection of actions (=-=Maes, 1990-=-c; Maes, 1990b; Maes, 1991; Maes, 1991), see especially Maes (1990a). Also on action selection, see Tyrell (1993)). Artificial Life’s major drawback concerns its lack of intelligence, the lack of, in ...

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...) The cooperation threshold is a subjective measure, tempered by objective beliefs. It is calculated here in a similar fashion to the caluclations for situational trust. In earlier work (Marsh, 1992; =-=Marsh, 1993-=-) we suggested that the cooperation threshold was determined by: Cooperation Threshold x (α) = Perceived Risk x(α) Perceived Competence x (y, α) × Ix(α) (4.3)sCHAPTER 4. AN EXAMPLE HEURISTIC FORMALISM...