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...ions of hemodynamic activation of spatially distinct areas (Friston, Frith, Liddle, & Frackowiak, 1993). During rest, functionally related brain regions display correlations in the fMRI time courses (=-=Biswal, Yetkin, Haughton, & Hyde, 1995-=-), and temporary changes in correlations between brain regions can be the result of task performance. Waites, Stanislavsky, Abbott, and Jackson (2005), for example, found an increase in the correlatio...

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...ion in the input very well and therefore do not seem to use the available information efficiently. Consequently, a wealth of research has examined possible differences between input and intake (e.g., =-=Schmidt, 1990-=-), the role of attention and noticing (e.g., Gass, Svetics, & Lemelin, 2003; Izumi, 2002; Robinson, 2003; Schmidt, 2001; Wong, 2001), differences between explicit versus implicit learning, and declara...

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...ult Learning After Minimal Exposure to Natural Language also suggest that L2 learners are able to use statistical transition probabilities between syllables to determine likely word boundaries (e.g., =-=Saffran, Newport, & Aslin, 1996-=-; Weiss, Gerfen, & Mitchel, 2009; and articles in this volume). Studies of the types cited provide important evidence on learners’ strategies and use of cues. However, they leave open the question of ...

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...mplicit learning, and declarative versus procedural knowledge (e.g., Language Learning 60:Suppl. 2, December 2010, pp. 5–24 6 Gullberg et al. Adult Learning After Minimal Exposure to Natural Language =-=Anderson, 1976-=-; DeKeyser, 2003; Ellis, 1994; Hulstijn, 2003; Paradis, 2009; Ullman, 2001), and so forth. Interestingly, the theorizing about what the adult L2 learner is or is not capable of both in terms of develo...

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... 18 Gullberg et al. Adult Learning After Minimal Exposure to Natural Language Note 1 Artificial language learning studies suggest that TPs between syllables are an important factor in learning (e.g., =-=Aslin, Saffran, & Newport, 1998-=-; Perruchet & Desaulty, 2008). However, in natural language material like the weather report, which displays a high number of word types, TPs are quite different from the minimal systems used in artif...

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...eceived comparatively more attention than the segmentation problem. In the child language literature, word learning, lexical, and vocabulary acquisition is often discussed in terms of “fast mapping” (=-=Carey & Bartlett, 1978-=-) whereby children supposedly “learn” a new word after a single or very few encounters in the input, typically during the so-called vocabulary explosion around 18–24months (e.g., Clark, 2003; for a di...

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...draw on fine-grained acoustic cues to detect word boundaries and segment auditory L2 input using both language-specific phonetic and phonotactic information from the L1 (Broersma, 2005; Cutler, 2001; =-=Cutler, Mehler, Norris, & Segui, 1986-=-; Cutler & Otake, 1994; Flege & Wang, 1990; Weber & Cutler, 2006) and more general acoustic information such as aspiration (Altenberg, 2005; Barcroft & Sommers, 2005) to do so. Studies in the field of...

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...arey & Bartlett, 1978) whereby children supposedly “learn” a new word after a single or very few encounters in the input, typically during the so-called vocabulary explosion around 18–24months (e.g., =-=Clark, 2003-=-; for a discussion of what “learning” might mean, see Bloom, 2004). In L2 studies, it is generally recognized that adults are competent vocabulary learners, but they are rarely granted the capacity fo...

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...ey, 2010) we therefore used a model-free approach, assessing the socalled functional connectivity—that is, correlations between the fluctuations of hemodynamic activation of spatially distinct areas (=-=Friston, Frith, Liddle, & Frackowiak, 1993-=-). During rest, functionally related brain regions display correlations in the fMRI time courses (Biswal, Yetkin, Haughton, & Hyde, 1995), and temporary changes in correlations between brain regions c...

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...udies focus on word learning through reading, showing that adults can learn newwordswithout instructionwhile reading for comprehension after two to three encounters (e.g., Horst, Cobb, & Meara, 1998; =-=Hulstijn, Hollander, & Greidanus, 1996-=-; Rott, 1999). There are frequency effects such that the number of repetitions often improve learning (Kirsner, 1994), but so do cognate status and the size of the preexisting vocabulary (see Hulstijn...

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...e Learning 60:Suppl. 2, December 2010, pp. 5–24 6 Gullberg et al. Adult Learning After Minimal Exposure to Natural Language Anderson, 1976; DeKeyser, 2003; Ellis, 1994; Hulstijn, 2003; Paradis, 2009; =-=Ullman, 2001-=-), and so forth. Interestingly, the theorizing about what the adult L2 learner is or is not capable of both in terms of developing representations and processing typically draws on data from stages of...

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...tive vocabulary, the role of consciousness and attention for lexical acquisition, and implicit and incidental word learning (e.g., Bogaards & Laufer, 2004; DeKeyser, 2003, for overviews; Ellis, 1994; =-=Hulstijn, 2001-=-, 2003). Many studies focus on word learning through reading, showing that adults can learn newwordswithout instructionwhile reading for comprehension after two to three encounters (e.g., Horst, Cobb,...

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...lstijn, 2001, 2003). Many studies focus on word learning through reading, showing that adults can learn newwordswithout instructionwhile reading for comprehension after two to three encounters (e.g., =-=Horst, Cobb, & Meara, 1998-=-; Hulstijn, Hollander, & Greidanus, 1996; Rott, 1999). There are frequency effects such that the number of repetitions often improve learning (Kirsner, 1994), but so do cognate status and the size of ...

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...002), an assumption supported by the robust finding that content words are acquired before function words by both child and adult learners, by tutored and untutored learners alike (e.g., Clark, 2003; =-=Klein, 1986-=-; Kotsinas, 1983). However, whereas the quest for content may be a primary conscious driving force, segmentation must precede it (see Carroll, 2001, for the same argument) and that must happen in the ...

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..., and declarative versus procedural knowledge (e.g., Language Learning 60:Suppl. 2, December 2010, pp. 5–24 6 Gullberg et al. Adult Learning After Minimal Exposure to Natural Language Anderson, 1976; =-=DeKeyser, 2003-=-; Ellis, 1994; Hulstijn, 2003; Paradis, 2009; Ullman, 2001), and so forth. Interestingly, the theorizing about what the adult L2 learner is or is not capable of both in terms of developing representat...

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...main of morphosyntax, arguing for developmental sequences and stages typical of all interlanguage and at least partly independent of source and target language structures (e.g., Klein & Perdue, 1997; =-=Meisel, Clahsen, & Pienemann, 1981-=- inter multa alia). In the domain of comprehension, studies of artificial language learning in turn typically show that adults are capable of using statistical and prosodic information such as pauses ...

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...tored and untutored learners alike (e.g., Clark, 2003; Klein, 1986; Kotsinas, 1983). However, whereas the quest for content may be a primary conscious driving force, segmentation must precede it (see =-=Carroll, 2001-=-, for the same argument) and that must happen in the absence of identified meaning. The word recognition data from this study suggest that such learning is possible. The neurocognitive study, drawing ...

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..., especially in the domain of morphosyntax, arguing for developmental sequences and stages typical of all interlanguage and at least partly independent of source and target language structures (e.g., =-=Klein & Perdue, 1997-=-; Meisel, Clahsen, & Pienemann, 1981 inter multa alia). In the domain of comprehension, studies of artificial language learning in turn typically show that adults are capable of using statistical and ...

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...ciently. Consequently, a wealth of research has examined possible differences between input and intake (e.g., Schmidt, 1990), the role of attention and noticing (e.g., Gass, Svetics, & Lemelin, 2003; =-=Izumi, 2002-=-; Robinson, 2003; Schmidt, 2001; Wong, 2001), differences between explicit versus implicit learning, and declarative versus procedural knowledge (e.g., Language Learning 60:Suppl. 2, December 2010, pp...

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...weather charts. The effect of gestural highlighting is not surprising and tallies well with studies showing that viewers integrate the information conveyed by gestures to improve comprehension (e.g., =-=Beattie & Shovelton, 1999-=-; Butterworth & Itakura, 2000; Langton, O’Malley, & Bruce, 1996). Studies in other domains also suggest that contextual, visual cues such as the speaker’s face and mouth improve lexical learning (Davi...

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...etect word boundaries and segment auditory L2 input using both language-specific phonetic and phonotactic information from the L1 (Broersma, 2005; Cutler, 2001; Cutler, Mehler, Norris, & Segui, 1986; =-=Cutler & Otake, 1994-=-; Flege & Wang, 1990; Weber & Cutler, 2006) and more general acoustic information such as aspiration (Altenberg, 2005; Barcroft & Sommers, 2005) to do so. Studies in the field of artificial language l...

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...anguage learning studies work when the input consists of complex natural language. It has been suggested in the traditional acquisition literature that the quest for meaning drives acquisition (e.g., =-=VanPatten, 2002-=-), an assumption supported by the robust finding that content words are acquired before function words by both child and adult learners, by tutored and untutored learners alike (e.g., Clark, 2003; Kle...

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...ding, showing that adults can learn newwordswithout instructionwhile reading for comprehension after two to three encounters (e.g., Horst, Cobb, & Meara, 1998; Hulstijn, Hollander, & Greidanus, 1996; =-=Rott, 1999-=-). There are frequency effects such that the number of repetitions often improve learning (Kirsner, 1994), but so do cognate status and the size of the preexisting vocabulary (see Hulstijn, 2003, for ...

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...uage—that is, to control the effects of preexisting (linguistic) knowledge in order to minimize the effects of previously learned languages (cf. research on crosslinguistic influence in the L2; e.g., =-=Jarvis & Pavlenko, 2008-=-). Moreover, to understand which auditory and/or visual features in the input are noticed, attended to, and taken as evidence of linguistic distinctions by learners, it is important to control the inc...

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...edural knowledge (e.g., Language Learning 60:Suppl. 2, December 2010, pp. 5–24 6 Gullberg et al. Adult Learning After Minimal Exposure to Natural Language Anderson, 1976; DeKeyser, 2003; Ellis, 1994; =-=Hulstijn, 2003-=-; Paradis, 2009; Ullman, 2001), and so forth. Interestingly, the theorizing about what the adult L2 learner is or is not capable of both in terms of developing representations and processing typically...

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...equently, a wealth of research has examined possible differences between input and intake (e.g., Schmidt, 1990), the role of attention and noticing (e.g., Gass, Svetics, & Lemelin, 2003; Izumi, 2002; =-=Robinson, 2003-=-; Schmidt, 2001; Wong, 2001), differences between explicit versus implicit learning, and declarative versus procedural knowledge (e.g., Language Learning 60:Suppl. 2, December 2010, pp. 5–24 6 Gullber...

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...e versus procedural knowledge (e.g., Language Learning 60:Suppl. 2, December 2010, pp. 5–24 6 Gullberg et al. Adult Learning After Minimal Exposure to Natural Language Anderson, 1976; DeKeyser, 2003; =-=Ellis, 1994-=-; Hulstijn, 2003; Paradis, 2009; Ullman, 2001), and so forth. Interestingly, the theorizing about what the adult L2 learner is or is not capable of both in terms of developing representations and proc...

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...e first minutes of learning of a new language. To date, most neuroimaging studies investigating the neural correlates of learning new words have presented participants with isolated novel word forms (=-=Breitenstein et al., 2005-=-; Cornelissen et al., 2004; Davis, Di Betta, Macdonald, & Gaskell, 2009; Grönholm, Rinne, Vorobyev, & Laine, 2005; Mei et al., 2008; Raboyeau et al., 2004; Wong, Perrachione, & Parrish, 2007), often ...

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...of gestural highlighting is not surprising and tallies well with studies showing that viewers integrate the information conveyed by gestures to improve comprehension (e.g., Beattie & Shovelton, 1999; =-=Butterworth & Itakura, 2000-=-; Langton, O’Malley, & Bruce, 1996). Studies in other domains also suggest that contextual, visual cues such as the speaker’s face and mouth improve lexical learning (Davis & Kim, 2001; Reisberg, McLe...

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... (e.g., Language Learning 60:Suppl. 2, December 2010, pp. 5–24 6 Gullberg et al. Adult Learning After Minimal Exposure to Natural Language Anderson, 1976; DeKeyser, 2003; Ellis, 1994; Hulstijn, 2003; =-=Paradis, 2009-=-; Ullman, 2001), and so forth. Interestingly, the theorizing about what the adult L2 learner is or is not capable of both in terms of developing representations and processing typically draws on data ...

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...effects ofminutes rather than hours or weeks of exposure. Moreover, in contrast to many studies examining the role of frequency in processing and language learning (for an overview of L2 effects, see =-=Ellis, 2002-=-), we investigate the effect of item frequency at very low limits of frequency. Finally, we target broader contextual cues like speech-associated gestures accompanying speech. The Input: A Weather Rep...

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...l arguments to account for adults’ less successful L2 acquisition, mainly in production, appealing to loss of plasticity in the adult brain (for overviews of such arguments, see e.g., Birdsong, 2006; =-=DeKeyser & Larson-Hall, 2005-=-; Singleton & Ryan, 2004). This view of the adult learner as neurologically inflexible clearly has to be modified in view of findings from comprehension studies indicating rapid neurological adjustmen...

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...ly, however, learners must identify word strings on their own. The difficulties this causes are manifest in learner-typical behavior such as the production of chunks or formulas (for an overview, see =-=Wray, 2009-=-) where word boundaries are not necessarily observed at early stages (e.g., words in early French learner language such as levolur “steal/thief” and lepeje “money/pay” (Perdue, 2006, p. 860) with unan...

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...word after a single or very few encounters in the input, typically during the so-called vocabulary explosion around 18–24months (e.g., Clark, 2003; for a discussion of what “learning” might mean, see =-=Bloom, 2004-=-). In L2 studies, it is generally recognized that adults are competent vocabulary learners, but they are rarely granted the capacity for fast mapping. A large body of literature investigates adult L2 ...

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...and segment auditory L2 input using both language-specific phonetic and phonotactic information from the L1 (Broersma, 2005; Cutler, 2001; Cutler, Mehler, Norris, & Segui, 1986; Cutler & Otake, 1994; =-=Flege & Wang, 1990-=-; Weber & Cutler, 2006) and more general acoustic information such as aspiration (Altenberg, 2005; Barcroft & Sommers, 2005) to do so. Studies in the field of artificial language learning 9 Language L...

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... of a new language. To date, most neuroimaging studies investigating the neural correlates of learning new words have presented participants with isolated novel word forms (Breitenstein et al., 2005; =-=Cornelissen et al., 2004-=-; Davis, Di Betta, Macdonald, & Gaskell, 2009; Grönholm, Rinne, Vorobyev, & Laine, 2005; Mei et al., 2008; Raboyeau et al., 2004; Wong, Perrachione, & Parrish, 2007), often paired with pictures of no...

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...novel word forms (Breitenstein et al., 2005; Cornelissen et al., 2004; Davis, Di Betta, Macdonald, & Gaskell, 2009; Grönholm, Rinne, Vorobyev, & Laine, 2005; Mei et al., 2008; Raboyeau et al., 2004; =-=Wong, Perrachione, & Parrish, 2007-=-), often paired with pictures of novel or familiar objects providing the meaning of the novel words. Although there is only partial overlap between the brain regions reported to be activated in these ...

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...t L2 learners draw on fine-grained acoustic cues to detect word boundaries and segment auditory L2 input using both language-specific phonetic and phonotactic information from the L1 (Broersma, 2005; =-=Cutler, 2001-=-; Cutler, Mehler, Norris, & Segui, 1986; Cutler & Otake, 1994; Flege & Wang, 1990; Weber & Cutler, 2006) and more general acoustic information such as aspiration (Altenberg, 2005; Barcroft & Sommers, ...

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...g After Minimal Exposure to Natural Language Note 1 Artificial language learning studies suggest that TPs between syllables are an important factor in learning (e.g., Aslin, Saffran, & Newport, 1998; =-=Perruchet & Desaulty, 2008-=-). However, in natural language material like the weather report, which displays a high number of word types, TPs are quite different from the minimal systems used in artificial language studies. To b...

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...re to Natural Language also suggest that L2 learners are able to use statistical transition probabilities between syllables to determine likely word boundaries (e.g., Saffran, Newport, & Aslin, 1996; =-=Weiss, Gerfen, & Mitchel, 2009-=-; and articles in this volume). Studies of the types cited provide important evidence on learners’ strategies and use of cues. However, they leave open the question of what learners are capable of at ...

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...has examined possible differences between input and intake (e.g., Schmidt, 1990), the role of attention and noticing (e.g., Gass, Svetics, & Lemelin, 2003; Izumi, 2002; Robinson, 2003; Schmidt, 2001; =-=Wong, 2001-=-), differences between explicit versus implicit learning, and declarative versus procedural knowledge (e.g., Language Learning 60:Suppl. 2, December 2010, pp. 5–24 6 Gullberg et al. Adult Learning Aft...

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...ion probabilities between segments are judged as non-words compared to words with relatively higher segmental TPs which are instead judged as pseudo words, that is, as possible words in the language (=-=Frisch, Large, Zawaydeh, & Pisoni, 2001-=-). We tested whether Dutch adults could detect syllable structure violations in Mandarin Chinese after minimal exposure, and whether they could apply phonotactic knowledge derived from the input to ne...

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..., 2005; Cutler, 2001; Cutler, Mehler, Norris, & Segui, 1986; Cutler & Otake, 1994; Flege & Wang, 1990; Weber & Cutler, 2006) and more general acoustic information such as aspiration (Altenberg, 2005; =-=Barcroft & Sommers, 2005-=-) to do so. Studies in the field of artificial language learning 9 Language Learning 60:Suppl. 2, December 2010, pp. 5–24 Gullberg et al. Adult Learning After Minimal Exposure to Natural Language also...

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...08). Furthermore, age interacts with the linguistic domain under study. For instance, adults are faster, or at least not slower, than children in initial stages of acquisition for morphosyntax (e.g., =-=Slavoff & Johnson, 1995-=-) or phonology (e.g., Loewenthal & Bull, 1984). In the lexical domain, in contrast, children are sometimes thought to be both faster and better than adults (Carey & Bartlett, 1978). However, Markson a...

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... the L1 (Broersma, 2005; Cutler, 2001; Cutler, Mehler, Norris, & Segui, 1986; Cutler & Otake, 1994; Flege & Wang, 1990; Weber & Cutler, 2006) and more general acoustic information such as aspiration (=-=Altenberg, 2005-=-; Barcroft & Sommers, 2005) to do so. Studies in the field of artificial language learning 9 Language Learning 60:Suppl. 2, December 2010, pp. 5–24 Gullberg et al. Adult Learning After Minimal Exposur...

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... shown that adult L2 learners draw on fine-grained acoustic cues to detect word boundaries and segment auditory L2 input using both language-specific phonetic and phonotactic information from the L1 (=-=Broersma, 2005-=-; Cutler, 2001; Cutler, Mehler, Norris, & Segui, 1986; Cutler & Otake, 1994; Flege & Wang, 1990; Weber & Cutler, 2006) and more general acoustic information such as aspiration (Altenberg, 2005; Barcro...

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...e the available information efficiently. Consequently, a wealth of research has examined possible differences between input and intake (e.g., Schmidt, 1990), the role of attention and noticing (e.g., =-=Gass, Svetics, & Lemelin, 2003-=-; Izumi, 2002; Robinson, 2003; Schmidt, 2001; Wong, 2001), differences between explicit versus implicit learning, and declarative versus procedural knowledge (e.g., Language Learning 60:Suppl. 2, Dece...

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...that both native and nonnative listeners recognized words repeated 10 times in isolation, but nonnative listeners did not recognize words repeated four times in continuous speech in sentence context (=-=Snijders, Kooijman, Cutler, & Hagoort, 2007-=-). Additions in small increments can thus make a big difference to nonnative segmentation skills. Sound to Meaning Mapping After 7 and 14 Minutes The mapping problem—that is, the linking of meaning to...

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...e investigates adult L2 learners’ acquisition of productive and receptive vocabulary, the role of consciousness and attention for lexical acquisition, and implicit and incidental word learning (e.g., =-=Bogaards & Laufer, 2004-=-; DeKeyser, 2003, for overviews; Ellis, 1994; Hulstijn, 2001, 2003). Many studies focus on word learning through reading, showing that adults can learn newwordswithout instructionwhile reading for com...

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...ave presented participants with isolated novel word forms (Breitenstein et al., 2005; Cornelissen et al., 2004; Davis, Di Betta, Macdonald, & Gaskell, 2009; Grönholm, Rinne, Vorobyev, & Laine, 2005; =-=Mei et al., 2008-=-; Raboyeau et al., 2004; Wong, Perrachione, & Parrish, 2007), often paired with pictures of novel or familiar objects providing the meaning of the novel words. Although there is only partial overlap b...

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...lts’ less successful L2 acquisition, mainly in production, appealing to loss of plasticity in the adult brain (for overviews of such arguments, see e.g., Birdsong, 2006; DeKeyser & Larson-Hall, 2005; =-=Singleton & Ryan, 2004-=-). This view of the adult learner as neurologically inflexible clearly has to be modified in view of findings from comprehension studies indicating rapid neurological adjustment to new input after as ...

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...ted for standard functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) analyses, because they are based on a statistical model that takes into account the temporal order and duration of conditions. In a recent study (=-=Veroude, Norris, Shumskaya, Gullberg, & Indefrey, 2010-=-) we therefore used a model-free approach, assessing the socalled functional connectivity—that is, correlations between the fluctuations of hemodynamic activation of spatially distinct areas (Friston,...

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...1999; Butterworth & Itakura, 2000; Langton, O’Malley, & Bruce, 1996). Studies in other domains also suggest that contextual, visual cues such as the speaker’s face and mouth improve lexical learning (=-=Davis & Kim, 2001-=-; Reisberg, McLean, & Goldfield, 1987). More newsworthy is the observation that the mapping of meaning to word form at these earliest stages seems to require accumulative cues to take full effect such...

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...mption supported by the robust finding that content words are acquired before function words by both child and adult learners, by tutored and untutored learners alike (e.g., Clark, 2003; Klein, 1986; =-=Kotsinas, 1983-=-). However, whereas the quest for content may be a primary conscious driving force, segmentation must precede it (see Carroll, 2001, for the same argument) and that must happen in the absence of ident...

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...s normally assumed when faced with small amounts of complex, continuous audiovisual language input. Far too little empirical attention has been paid to the very beginnings of the acquisition process. =-=Perdue, 1996-=-, p. 138 It is a challenging task to learn a new, second language (L2) as an adult outside a classroom and without any help or instruction. Under such circumstances, learners must rely entirely on the...

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... focused on end states, recent studies comparing child L2 learners of different ages suggest that younger children progress via a different route toward the target language than older children (e.g., =-=Dimroth, 2008-=-). Furthermore, age interacts with the linguistic domain under study. For instance, adults are faster, or at least not slower, than children in initial stages of acquisition for morphosyntax (e.g., Sl...

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...uistic domain under study. For instance, adults are faster, or at least not slower, than children in initial stages of acquisition for morphosyntax (e.g., Slavoff & Johnson, 1995) or phonology (e.g., =-=Loewenthal & Bull, 1984-=-). In the lexical domain, in contrast, children are sometimes thought to be both faster and better than adults (Carey & Bartlett, 1978). However, Markson and Bloom (1997) found that adults were signif...

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... not adults can fast 11 Language Learning 60:Suppl. 2, December 2010, pp. 5–24 Gullberg et al. Adult Learning After Minimal Exposure to Natural Language map under such circumstances is not known (see =-=Rohde & Tiefenthal, 2000-=-, for a study on fast mapping with training). In another set of experiments (Gullberg et al., in press), we examined whether adult native speakers of Dutch can extract meaning from Mandarin Chinese in...

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...for an overview, see Wray, 2009) where word boundaries are not necessarily observed at early stages (e.g., words in early French learner language such as levolur “steal/thief” and lepeje “money/pay” (=-=Perdue, 2006-=-, p. 860) with unanalyzed “prefixes” reminiscent of articles). However, previous studies have shown that adult L2 learners draw on fine-grained acoustic cues to detect word boundaries and segment audi...

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...ered neurological arguments to account for adults’ less successful L2 acquisition, mainly in production, appealing to loss of plasticity in the adult brain (for overviews of such arguments, see e.g., =-=Birdsong, 2006-=-; DeKeyser & Larson-Hall, 2005; Singleton & Ryan, 2004). This view of the adult learner as neurologically inflexible clearly has to be modified in view of findings from comprehension studies indicatin...

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...defined as number of syllables (one vs. two). Number of syllables was chosen because it has previously been shown that monosyllabic items may cause difficulty of perception in certain contexts (e.g., =-=Dommergues & Segui, 1989-=-).1 Finally, we examined the effect of amount of exposure, comparing performance after 7 and 14 min of input. The results showed that after 7 min of Chinese input, participants more accurately recogni...

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...e general instruction to “watch the film.” Throughout, we tested native speakers of Dutch with no knowledge of Mandarin Chinese, as ascertained through an extensive language background questionnaire (=-=Gullberg & Indefrey, 2003-=-). The First 7–14 Minutes of Contact With an Unknown Language Word Recognition After 7 and 14 Minutes Segmenting input in a new language is a crucial first step in language acquisition. This is a chal...

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...hat is, theories generally consider learners who already have vocabularies and grammatical systems available to bootstrap the learning of more material in the L2. With a few notable exceptions (e.g., =-=Klein & Dimroth, 2009-=-), most theories of the capacity of the adult learning mechanism are based on intermediate learning stages during which knowledge has been acquired that can boost further input processing. This is all...

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...m can obviously be facilitated in tutored situations in which teachers or native speakers may adjust their articulation to emphasize word boundaries through so-called teacher or foreigner talk (e.g., =-=Ferguson, 1975-=-). Mostly, however, learners must identify word strings on their own. The difficulties this causes are manifest in learner-typical behavior such as the production of chunks or formulas (for an overvie...

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...two to three encounters (e.g., Horst, Cobb, & Meara, 1998; Hulstijn, Hollander, & Greidanus, 1996; Rott, 1999). There are frequency effects such that the number of repetitions often improve learning (=-=Kirsner, 1994-=-), but so do cognate status and the size of the preexisting vocabulary (see Hulstijn, 2003, for an overview). As in the case of the segmentation problem, very little is known about adults’ capacity fo...

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...h adults could detect syllable structure violations in Mandarin Chinese after minimal exposure, and whether they could apply phonotactic knowledge derived from the input to new items of the language (=-=Roberts, Dimroth, & Gullberg, 2010-=-). As earlier, participants watched the weather report and then completed a surprise lexical decision task in which they listened to sounds and had to determine whether they were “real Chinese.” We te...

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...arning during which a considerable amount of knowledge has already been acquired (this is true even for studies explicitly concerned with “the initial state” of L2 acquisition; see, e.g., articles in =-=Schwartz and Eubank, 1996-=-); that is, theories generally consider learners who already have vocabularies and grammatical systems available to bootstrap the learning of more material in the L2. With a few notable exceptions (e....

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... L2 input using both language-specific phonetic and phonotactic information from the L1 (Broersma, 2005; Cutler, 2001; Cutler, Mehler, Norris, & Segui, 1986; Cutler & Otake, 1994; Flege & Wang, 1990; =-=Weber & Cutler, 2006-=-) and more general acoustic information such as aspiration (Altenberg, 2005; Barcroft & Sommers, 2005) to do so. Studies in the field of artificial language learning 9 Language Learning 60:Suppl. 2, D...

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...ntrolling preexisting linguistic knowledge, and controlling the properties of the input language. Inspired by an unpublished pilot project conducted at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics (=-=Zwitserlood et al., 1994-=-), we have developed and successfully used a test paradigm allowing us to examine the earliest perception and processing of input in an unknown natural L2 and the stepwise development of segmental, le...