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...way communication, but participationsalso depends on other criteria, such as power relationships. There, situationalsand other contextual factors play a role as well (Einsiedel & Wambui Kamara,s2006; =-=Rowe & Frewer, 2000-=-). Therefore, we suggest that these insights bessubstantiated by further research. Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge the suggestions of two anonymous reviewers. The studysdescribed in this pa...

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...ves held by thesparticipants (Downs & Adrian, 2004). However, focus group discussionssbased on small and unrepresentative samples cannot be used as the sole empirical evidence to support conclusions (=-=Morgan, 1997-=-). Therefore, we based thesreported qualitative analysis in this article on results that were part of theslarger research project (Dijkstra et al, 2010).sat PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on April 8, 2016scx...

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...e—in one particular field are at the same timeslaypeople in another field. They acknowledge that several types of expert andslay knowledge must be recognized, as Wynne and others have argued as wells(=-=Irwin & Wynne, 1996-=-; Wynne, 1995). In addition, De Loor, Midden, andsHisschemöller (1992) already stated that knowledge and interest are important in defining behavioral intentions. In turn, involvement with an issue,sa...

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...h Questions Nowadays, the traditional public-science relationship has changed. Scienceswas expected to produce reliable and valid knowledge and to communicatesthis knowledge to the receiving society (=-=Gibbons, 1999-=-). Science literacy ofsthe public was eminent. However, more recent studies indicate that sciencesno longer is beyond criticism (e.g., Allum, Sturgis, Tabourazi, & BruntonSmith, 2008; Bauer & Gaskell,...

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... of the Focus Group Discussions In total, eight focus group discussions with a total of 70 participants were conducted. The groups represented various levels of participation (see Bloor et al.,s2001; =-=Knodel, 1993-=-). All participants were asked to cooperate, without anysneed to prepare themselves, in social scientific research regarding gene technology in order for the recruiting process to be the same as much ...

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...ield are at the same timeslaypeople in another field. They acknowledge that several types of expert andslay knowledge must be recognized, as Wynne and others have argued as wells(Irwin & Wynne, 1996; =-=Wynne, 1995-=-). In addition, De Loor, Midden, andsHisschemöller (1992) already stated that knowledge and interest are important in defining behavioral intentions. In turn, involvement with an issue,samong others r...

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... 3 6 8 0 3 32 (46%) Two moderators guided the focus group discussions. To enhance internalsconsistency, in all of the eight focus groups the same observer, coresponsiblesfor analysis, took notes (see =-=Kidd & Parshall, 2000-=-). The focus group discussions were both video- and audiotaped to allow transcription of the discussions afterward. The discussions lasted approximately 2 hours each. At thesend of each discussion, a ...

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...onship, oursfindings suggest that the communication process does not necessarily alwayssentail a process of dialogue aimed at maximum participation as assumed bysthe science and society paradigm (see =-=Bauer et al., 2007-=-; Rowan, 1994).sParticipants want information to be available, although not everyone wants tosbe engaged or is interested in issues such as biotechnology or genomics.sAccording to the participants, th...

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...rstanding. There have been a number of studies analyzing the public’s perceptions of and attitudes toward science issuesssuch as biotechnology and genomics (e.g., Bates, Lynch, Bevan, & Condit,s2005; =-=Marris, Wynne, Simmons, & Weldon, 2001-=-; Qin & Brown, 2006).sHowever, as far as we know, they do not ask about people’s own considerations about communication aspects of biotechnology and genomics,sthat is, the way they perceive the commun...

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...formation or not.sBoth active consumers and patient groups organize and empower themselvessby taking a more active role in the communication process and delve deepersinto science-related content (see =-=Nisbet & Scheufele, 2009-=-). It appears thatsparticipants in more organized roles are able to develop skills that enablesthem to engage in the broader policy and technology debate. At the same time, experts, in their role, poi...

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...in the calls for public participation. Method We organized focus group discussions, since gathering a palette of opinionsscould well be investigated by an exploratory study (see Downs & Adrian,s2004; =-=Kerr et al., 1998-=-). Focus group discussions are capable of showing asbroad range of views, useful for understanding the different perspectives heldsby the participants (Downs & Adrian, 2004; Kerr et al., 1998). They e...

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...y (Gibbons, 1999). Science literacy ofsthe public was eminent. However, more recent studies indicate that sciencesno longer is beyond criticism (e.g., Allum, Sturgis, Tabourazi, & BruntonSmith, 2008; =-=Bauer & Gaskell, 2002-=-; Gaskell & Bauer, 2001, 2006;sDijkstra, Gutteling, Swart, Wieringa,Van der Windt, & Seydel (2010)).sAnd, public participation seems the ideal solution for the growing gapsbetween science and society ...

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...th the recent line ofsargument that public participation should be “upstream engagement”: engagesthe public at an early stage in technological development when it is still possible to set the agenda (=-=Powell & Colin, 2008-=-; Rogers-Hayden & Pidgeon,s2008; Wilsdon & Willis, 2004). More Differentiated Roles of Publics Kerr, Cunningham-Burley, and Amos (1998) stated that publics, in some roles,swant information to be avail...

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... understanding of the public-science relationship. We focus on this question since recent studies on the public’s understanding of science emphasize the need for dialogue and engaging the publics(see =-=Einsiedel & Goldenberg, 2004-=-; Wilsdon & Willis, 2004). Engagingshas become the preferred communication technique of governments aroundsthe world. More knowledge on publics’ preferences can manage our expectations in the calls fo...

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...hasis is less on informing peoplesand instead aimed at improving communication among citizens, scientists,spoliticians, government, corporate officials, and journalists (see Einsiedel &sThorne, 1999; =-=Logan, 2001-=-). This approach is probably better suited to thespublic wish of more active participation and in line with the recent line ofsargument that public participation should be “upstream engagement”: engag...

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...teady but should be thoughtsof as entities of a more fluid nature. The public may adopt different rolessdepending on the particular functions it has to fulfill in relation to the way science is seen (=-=Felt, 2000-=-; Hansen, 2005; Hill & Michael, 1998; see also Dijkstra etsal., 2010). In this article, we qualitatively explore and discuss people’s own notionssabout the communication process of genomics research i...

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...tudies analyzing the public’s perceptions of and attitudes toward science issuesssuch as biotechnology and genomics (e.g., Bates, Lynch, Bevan, & Condit,s2005; Marris, Wynne, Simmons, & Weldon, 2001; =-=Qin & Brown, 2006-=-).sHowever, as far as we know, they do not ask about people’s own considerations about communication aspects of biotechnology and genomics,sthat is, the way they perceive the communication process reg...

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... suggest that the communication process does not necessarily alwayssentail a process of dialogue aimed at maximum participation as assumed bysthe science and society paradigm (see Bauer et al., 2007; =-=Rowan, 1994-=-).sParticipants want information to be available, although not everyone wants tosbe engaged or is interested in issues such as biotechnology or genomics.sAccording to the participants, this can be pro...

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...g processes. This is in line with quantitative researchsthat shows that publics fulfill various roles—some rather passive and otherssmore active—in the Dutch public biotechnology and genomics debates(=-=Dijkstra, 2008-=-; Dijkstra et al., 2010). In a survey study, aimed at investigating levels of participation in genomics research, we found that the widerspublic is a passive public, and although it is interested in g...

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...es have a certain interest when providing information in the communication process. The findings also point to differences between roles and provide insight inshow these roles differ (see Felt, 2000; =-=Gottweis, 2002-=-; Hill & Michael, 1998).sParticipants differ in their opinions about the way the communication processsshould be shaped. These opinions are related to the group they belong to.sAnalyses shows that par...

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...b.comDownloaded froms366sScience Communication 34(3) participation or involvement is a prerequisite for empowerment and consider participation an element of both individual and community empowerment (=-=Jacobs, Braakman, & Houweling, 2005-=-; Zimmerman, 2000). Accordingsto Zimmerman, participation in community organizations or activities contributes to empowerment processes at the individual level. Recent researchsof Powell and Lee Klein...

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...appeared to be interested in applications of bothsfood and medical genomics but at the same time showed negative attitudesstoward food applications, while they supported several medical applicationss(=-=Gaskell & Bauer, 2006-=-, Dijkstra, 2008). Design of the Focus Group Discussions In total, eight focus group discussions with a total of 70 participants were conducted. The groups represented various levels of participation ...

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...n addition, studies show that the Dutch are the most optimistic withinsEurope about the possibilities of science and technology, but, at the samestime, they are critical about science and technology (=-=Eurobarometer, 2005-=-).sThis dualistic attitude is reflected in their attitudes toward biotechnology andsgenomics since the Dutch appeared to be interested in applications of bothsfood and medical genomics but at the same...

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...in, Gutteling & Kuttschreuter,s2009), or show their behavior in other ways (De Loor et al., 1992). From involvement, or rather, public participation, it is a small step tosthe concept of empowerment (=-=Hansen, 2005-=-). Various authors argue thatsat PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on April 8, 2016scx.sagepub.comDownloaded froms366sScience Communication 34(3) participation or involvement is a prerequisite for empowerment a...

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...tsof as entities of a more fluid nature. The public may adopt different rolessdepending on the particular functions it has to fulfill in relation to the way science is seen (Felt, 2000; Hansen, 2005; =-=Hill & Michael, 1998-=-; see also Dijkstra etsal., 2010). In this article, we qualitatively explore and discuss people’s own notionssabout the communication process of genomics research in order to build onsprevious quantit...