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... searchable, and interactive format (Goodchild 1997; Kearns, Kelly, and Tuxen 2003) that builds on many of the design standards from information visualization and cognitive and cartographic research (=-=Tufte 2001-=-; MacEachren et al. 2004; Heer and Agrawala 2008; Balram and Dragicevic 2009). The recent emergence and broad adoption of information technologies to gather and visualize geographic information have i...

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...he spread of the Internet, and many projects have begun to use large-scale public resource computing to distribute data processing to many volunteers (e.g., SETI@home, folding@home, and others; D. P. =-=Anderson et al. 2002-=-). This distributed approach that utilizes the human and technological capital of volunteers can save time and resources as well as increase public knowledge and interest in science (Irwin 1995). Tech...

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...erson et al. 2002). This distributed approach that utilizes the human and technological capital of volunteers can save time and resources as well as increase public knowledge and interest in science (=-=Irwin 1995-=-). Technological advances have facilitated public participation in expert-guided scientific research, but it has also opened opportunities for informal knowledge sharing and information access beyond ...

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...ed to Web mapping—others include OpenLayers, MapServer, and Yahoo! Maps—it is the most prevalent and is related to the increased focus on the spatialization of information (Skupin and Fabrikant 2003; =-=Crandall et al. 2009-=-) and the increased familiarity with maps among the public. Although these changes in data standards and software have created new modes of interaction, radical changes in hardware have also supported...

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...a sets are increasingly generated and used by collaborative communities, often virtual, which can include researchers, decision makers, and private citizens (Wulf 1993; Kouzes, Meyers, and Wulf 1996; =-=Cummings and Kiesler 2005-=-; Pedersen, Kearns, and Kelly 2007). The possibilities for enlisting private citizens for scientific research has grown with the spread of the Internet, and many projects have begun to use large-scale...

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...e new roles for the public in gathering spatial information (Weiner and Harris 2003; Elwood 2006) that extend beyond quantitative forms of knowledge that are most easily translated into a GIS format (=-=Pickles 1995-=-). In doing so, scientists must also consider the goals of the data and continue to discriminate between data that are suitable for spatial modeling, or other quantitative tasks, and other Do wn loa d...

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...s the promise of democratizing GIS by engaging large numbers of public contributors, issues of access remain relevant. These issues are welldocumented in the Web GIS and participatory GIS literature (=-=Sieber 2003-=-; Chakraborty and Bosman 2005), but they merit mention with regard to emerging mobile technologies and in the context of citizen science. Smart phones in general represent about 23 percent of the mobi...

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...(Goodchild 1997; Kearns, Kelly, and Tuxen 2003) that builds on many of the design standards from information visualization and cognitive and cartographic research (Tufte 2001; MacEachren et al. 2004; =-=Heer and Agrawala 2008-=-; Balram and Dragicevic 2009). The recent emergence and broad adoption of information technologies to gather and visualize geographic information have increased the feasibility of conducting large-sca...

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... to several recent developments in LBS on mobile devices, which are largely targeted at individual users but can reveal new information when data are aggregated and analyzed, often in anonymous form (=-=Ratti et al. 2006-=-; Antoniou,Morley, andHaklay 2010; Longueville et al. 2010; Friedland and Choi 2011). For example, Ratti et al. (2006) collected sixteen days of geo-located cell phone activity in the metropolitan are...

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...e public, who are often best positioned to provide information that requires indigenous experience, esoteric understanding of a physical environment, or up-to-date information about local conditions (=-=Flanagin and Metzger 2008-=-). The time sensitivity of environmental monitoring efforts often requires rapid action. Local knowledge and crowdsourced skills that manifest in VGI offer particular promise for time-sensitive and em...

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...onitoring help to illustrate the model. First, consider a commonly cited example of citizen science in the United States, eBird, which provides an online community for birders to report observations (=-=Sullivan et al. 2009-=-). This is a public endeavor, with high specificity in terms of data collected (e.g., specific bird species) and requiring high intentionality and interaction with the database from the produser. A si...

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...ge production is one reason that neogeography, enabled by Web mapping services and applications, might help to reduce the gaps that have in the past divided the public, researchers, and policymakers (=-=Peluso 1995-=-; Bailey et al. 2006;Mason andDragicevic 2006; Parker 2006;Walker et al. 2007). In producing environmental data, citizen scientists become agents in the decision-making and policymaking process. The d...

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...ong the coast of California and southern Oregon. The disease, called sudden oak death (SOD), presents threats to the ecology, wildlife habitat, and aesthetic value of thousands of hectares of forest (=-=Rizzo and Garbelotto 2003-=-; McPherson et al. 2005). Evergreen and tanoak/redwood forests within the coastal fog belt are the primary habitat, with California bay laurel serving as a vector for disease propagation in wild setti...

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...y answer questions. In utilizing OSS, researchers might also display greater neutrality in their scientific endeavors, as they can divest from corporate interests associated with commercial software (=-=Curry 1998-=-). Conclusions The inclusion of private citizens in large-scale and complex environmental challenges will undoubtedly continue, whether through regulation—such as in the National Environmental Protect...

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...annels, potential trade-offs exist between data flow and accuracy, which must be addressed for individual projects. These differences in accuracy are increasingly recognized as characteristic of VGI (=-=Girres and Touya 2010-=-; Haklay 2010; Haklay et al. 2010). Goodchild (2007) mentioned this in the context of the new map “patchwork” paradigm, in which the accuracy of each piece of the patchwork, and the frequency with whi...

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...etween data flow and accuracy, which must be addressed for individual projects. These differences in accuracy are increasingly recognized as characteristic of VGI (Girres and Touya 2010; Haklay 2010; =-=Haklay et al. 2010-=-). Goodchild (2007) mentioned this in the context of the new map “patchwork” paradigm, in which the accuracy of each piece of the patchwork, and the frequency with which it is updated, can be determin...

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... distinguished by their intention to contribute to research endeavors. Drawing from literature on the motivations of contributors to Wikipedia and OSS projects (e.g., Lakhani andWolf 2005; Cook 2008; =-=Schroer and Hertel 2009-=-), Coleman, Georgiadou, and Labonte (2009) create a taxonomy of neogeographers and identified eleven distinct motivations for contributors to VGI, which operate within four areas of context: Do wn loa...

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...007; Gouveia and Fonseca 2008; Hall et al. 2010). Experiences from researchers in participatory GIS (PGIS) show that GIS can have various benefits for different phases of the decision-making process (=-=Jankowski and Nyerges 2001-=-), but further exploration is still needed to understand the role of VGI in research and environmental monitoring and decision making. These examples suggest that with the aid of information technolog...

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...general public to view, modify, and freely distribute the source code and its derived works without including restrictions on the use or distribution of software (G. Anderson and Moreno-Sanchez 2003; =-=Steiniger and Bocher 2009-=-). Projects meeting these criteria offer several advantages for developing research tools: (1) developers have full access to the working code and can customize it, (2) developers are not restricted t...

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... and interactive format (Goodchild 1997; Kearns, Kelly, and Tuxen 2003) that builds on many of the design standards from information visualization and cognitive and cartographic research (Tufte 2001; =-=MacEachren et al. 2004-=-; Heer and Agrawala 2008; Balram and Dragicevic 2009). The recent emergence and broad adoption of information technologies to gather and visualize geographic information have increased the feasibility...

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...tion. Technologies such as Google Maps and Open Street Map have been embraced by academic geographers but have also been widely employed by a nonexpert community, often referred to as neogeographers (=-=Turner 2006-=-; Haklay, Singleton, and Parker 2008). This article considers the emerging roles of volunteered geographic information (VGI, which is generated by the users of these technologies) and of citizen scien...

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...ntrast, citizen science refers to a practice, as opposed to the information itself. All citizen science projects involve volunteers and some have applied spatial tools (Kearns, Kelly, and Tuxen 2003; =-=Delaney et al. 2008-=-). Many of the current mapping tools for citizen science are purely for data display, but citizen science could also benefit from the emergence of VGI for crowdsourcing. OakMapper seeks to capitalize ...

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...d powerful cataloging structure for many environmental and social data. Such Web-based databases make geotagged data widely available in a visual, dynamic, quickly searchable, and interactive format (=-=Goodchild 1997-=-; Kearns, Kelly, and Tuxen 2003) that builds on many of the design standards from information visualization and cognitive and cartographic research (Tufte 2001; MacEachren et al. 2004; Heer and Agrawa...

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...en science have become common in biodiversity monitoring and conservation biology (e.g., Danielsen et al. 2005; Lepczyk 2005; Couvet et al. 2008) and early disaster response (Longueville et al. 2010; =-=Poser and Dransch 2010-=-) but are not as common in environmental monitoring. If used in the service of environmental monitoring, VGI and citizen science could embrace the broader social trend that favors citizen involvement ...

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... and southern Oregon. The disease, called sudden oak death (SOD), presents threats to the ecology, wildlife habitat, and aesthetic value of thousands of hectares of forest (Rizzo and Garbelotto 2003; =-=McPherson et al. 2005-=-). Evergreen and tanoak/redwood forests within the coastal fog belt are the primary habitat, with California bay laurel serving as a vector for disease propagation in wild settings. Infected nursery s...

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...Examples of VGI and citizen science have become common in biodiversity monitoring and conservation biology (e.g., Danielsen et al. 2005; Lepczyk 2005; Couvet et al. 2008) and early disaster response (=-=Longueville et al. 2010-=-; Poser and Dransch 2010) but are not as common in environmental monitoring. If used in the service of environmental monitoring, VGI and citizen science could embrace the broader social trend that fav...

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... is one reason that neogeography, enabled by Web mapping services and applications, might help to reduce the gaps that have in the past divided the public, researchers, and policymakers (Peluso 1995; =-=Bailey et al. 2006-=-;Mason andDragicevic 2006; Parker 2006;Walker et al. 2007). In producing environmental data, citizen scientists become agents in the decision-making and policymaking process. The desire to utilize geo...

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... the coproduction of spatial information echoes a broader trend toward developing a more participatory and social Internet, which is called Web 2.0 (O’Reilly 2007; Haklay, Singleton, and Parker 2008; =-=Hall et al. 2010-=-). Definitions of Web 2.0 vary, but O’Reilly (2007) identified common traits that include scalable Web-based services, user-enriched data sources, use of collective intelligence, and lightweight user ...

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...chnologies, and finally we discuss the implications of these technologies in the context of critical GIS. Produser-Centered Design OakMapper 2.0 was designed with a focus on usability and simplicity (=-=Newman et al. 2010-=-), particularly with regard to creating an environment that would ease the creation of geographic content. The user-centered design approach is critical for citizen science projects because users serv...

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...services and applications, might help to reduce the gaps that have in the past divided the public, researchers, and policymakers (Peluso 1995; Bailey et al. 2006;Mason andDragicevic 2006; Parker 2006;=-=Walker et al. 2007-=-). In producing environmental data, citizen scientists become agents in the decision-making and policymaking process. The desire to utilize geospatial technology for more inclusive environmental decis...

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...ermeyer 1998; Rinner, Kefller, and Andrulis 2008; Simao, Densham, and Haklay 2009), and they illustrate the potential of collaborative tools to actively develop consensus (Dragicevic and Balram 2006; =-=Nyerges et al. 2006-=-). Many of these projects have developed mechanisms that allow data exploration, scenario testing, location-based commenting, or place-based discussion forums (Peng 2001; Rinner, Kefller, and Andrulis...

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...erm crowdsourcing, has long been embraced by citizen science projects. Audubon’s Christmas Bird Count, which has utilized volunteers to conduct a census of birds in the Western Hemisphere since 1900 (=-=Butcher 1990-=-), is one of the longest running and best known citizen science projects. Other examples of citizen science have included fish counts, bird biodiversity, water monitoring, and air quality monitoring (...

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...e is a long and interesting history of scientists working with private citizens to gather and utilize scientific data (Holland 1996; Kearns, Kelly, and Tuxen 2003; Jennings, Jarnagin, and Ebert 2004; =-=Evans et al. 2006-=-; Parker 2006; Pedersen, Kearns, and Kelly 2007), the ability for these communities to interact can be impeded by interest levels, technical skills, information accessibility, data management, communi...

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... Kelly, and Tuxen 2003) that builds on many of the design standards from information visualization and cognitive and cartographic research (Tufte 2001; MacEachren et al. 2004; Heer and Agrawala 2008; =-=Balram and Dragicevic 2009-=-). The recent emergence and broad adoption of information technologies to gather and visualize geographic information have increased the feasibility of conducting large-scale citizen science projects,...

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...rst, the OakMapper database has been used as inputs to environmental niche models to predict the current and possible range of the pathogen P. ramorum (Guo, Kelly, and Graham 2005; Kelly et al. 2007; =-=Kluza et al. 2007-=-; Magarey et al. 2008). Second, the Web site has been used as an example of emerging technology in support of participatory forest management (Kelly, Tuxen, and Kearns 2004; Ward and Johnson 2007). Fu...

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...blic groups. Addressing these challenges often requires coordinated monitoring, efficient data collection and retrieval, and increased communication and cooperation between scientists and the public (=-=Kusel et al. 1996-=-; Mason and Dragicevic 2006; Lynam et al. 2007; Ban, Picard, and Vincent 2008; FernandezGimenez, Ballard, and Sturtevant 2008; Jacobson et al. 2009). Although there is a long and interesting history o...

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...l. 2007; Kluza et al. 2007; Magarey et al. 2008). Second, the Web site has been used as an example of emerging technology in support of participatory forest management (Kelly, Tuxen, and Kearns 2004; =-=Ward and Johnson 2007-=-). Future Directions The previous sections highlighted the technical and conceptual underpinnings of OakMapper and introduced some of the critical issues surrounding their implementation. Further deve...

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... decision-making process (Obermeyer 1998; Rinner, Kefller, and Andrulis 2008; Simao, Densham, and Haklay 2009), and they illustrate the potential of collaborative tools to actively develop consensus (=-=Dragicevic and Balram 2006-=-; Nyerges et al. 2006). Many of these projects have developed mechanisms that allow data exploration, scenario testing, location-based commenting, or place-based discussion forums (Peng 2001; Rinner, ...

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.... 2007) is evidenced in numerous projects, including the areas of habitat restoration, public health, environmental planning, water quality monitoring, and wildland fire management (Sisk et al. 2006; =-=Driedger et al. 2007-=-; Morehouse and O’Brien 2008; Ghaemi et al. 2009). The cited examples seek to use geographic information systems (GIS) to incorporate the opinions of stakeholders into the decision-making process (Obe...

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...n 2007; Dunn et al. 2007) is evidenced in numerous projects, including the areas of habitat restoration, public health, environmental planning, water quality monitoring, and wildland fire management (=-=Sisk et al. 2006-=-; Driedger et al. 2007; Morehouse and O’Brien 2008; Ghaemi et al. 2009). The cited examples seek to use geographic information systems (GIS) to incorporate the opinions of stakeholders into the decisi...

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... 2005; Cooper et al. 2007). Scientific data sets are increasingly generated and used by collaborative communities, often virtual, which can include researchers, decision makers, and private citizens (=-=Wulf 1993-=-; Kouzes, Meyers, and Wulf 1996; Cummings and Kiesler 2005; Pedersen, Kearns, and Kelly 2007). The possibilities for enlisting private citizens for scientific research has grown with the spread of the...

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...y and Bosman 2005). Similar disparities are apparent in the spatial distributions of posts on Google Maps, which have revealed a bias toward high-income locales and tourist destinations (Crutcher and =-=Zook 2009-=-). This bias echoes the arguments in critical GIS that socioeconomic forces regulate the flowof spatial information evenwhen information control is divested from centralized institutions. The research...

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...come agents in the decision-making and policymaking process. The desire to utilize geospatial technology for more inclusive environmental decision making and management (Elwood 2006, 2007; Dunn 2007; =-=Dunn et al. 2007-=-) is evidenced in numerous projects, including the areas of habitat restoration, public health, environmental planning, water quality monitoring, and wildland fire management (Sisk et al. 2006; Driedg...

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...007; Morehouse and O’Brien 2008; Ghaemi et al. 2009). The cited examples seek to use geographic information systems (GIS) to incorporate the opinions of stakeholders into the decision-making process (=-=Obermeyer 1998-=-; Rinner, Kefller, and Andrulis 2008; Simao, Densham, and Haklay 2009), and they illustrate the potential of collaborative tools to actively develop consensus (Dragicevic and Balram 2006; Nyerges et a...

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...nandezGimenez, Ballard, and Sturtevant 2008; Jacobson et al. 2009). Although there is a long and interesting history of scientists working with private citizens to gather and utilize scientific data (=-=Holland 1996-=-; Kearns, Kelly, and Tuxen 2003; Jennings, Jarnagin, and Ebert 2004; Evans et al. 2006; Parker 2006; Pedersen, Kearns, and Kelly 2007), the ability for these communities to interact can be impeded by ...

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...tion and cooperation between scientists and the public (Kusel et al. 1996; Mason and Dragicevic 2006; Lynam et al. 2007; Ban, Picard, and Vincent 2008; FernandezGimenez, Ballard, and Sturtevant 2008; =-=Jacobson et al. 2009-=-). Although there is a long and interesting history of scientists working with private citizens to gather and utilize scientific data (Holland 1996; Kearns, Kelly, and Tuxen 2003; Jennings, Jarnagin, ...

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... vector for disease propagation in wild settings. Infected nursery stock can also influence spread, and susceptible habitat and hosts for the pathogen exist throughout the conterminous United States (=-=Kelly et al. 2007-=-). The public remains interested in the disease and, early in the infestation, information from active and interested private citizens played an important part in locating new areas of infestation acr...