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511
A distributed, developmental model of word recognition and naming
- PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW
, 1989
"... A parallel distributed processing model of visual word recognition and pronunciation is described. The model consists of sets of orthographic and phonological units and an interlevel of hidden units. Weights on connections between units were modified during a training phase using the back-propagatio ..."
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Cited by 706 (49 self)
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A parallel distributed processing model of visual word recognition and pronunciation is described. The model consists of sets of orthographic and phonological units and an interlevel of hidden units. Weights on connections between units were modified during a training phase using the back-propagation learning algorithm. The model simulates many aspects of human performance, including (a) differences between words in terms of processing difficulty, (b) pronunciation of novel items, (c) differences between readers in terms of word recognition skill, (d) transitions from beginning to skilled reading, and (e) differences in performance on lexieal decision and naming tasks. The model's behavior early in the learning phase corresponds to that of children acquiring word recognition skills. Training with a smaller number of hidden units produces output characteristic of many dys-lexic readers. Naming is simulated without pronunciation rules, and lexical decisions are simulated without accessing word-level representations. The performance of the model is largely determined by three factors: the nature of the input, a significant fragment of written English; the learning rule, which encodes the implicit structure of the orthography in the weights on connections; and the architecture of the system, which influences the scope of what can be learned. The recognition and pronunciation of words is one of the cen-
A capacity theory of comprehension: Individual differences in working memory
- Psychological Review
, 1992
"... A theory of the way working memory capacity constrains comprehension is proposed. The theory proposes that both processing and storage are mediated by activation and that the total amount of activation available in working memory varies among individuals. Individual differences in working memory cap ..."
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Cited by 700 (21 self)
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A theory of the way working memory capacity constrains comprehension is proposed. The theory proposes that both processing and storage are mediated by activation and that the total amount of activation available in working memory varies among individuals. Individual differences in working memory capacity for language can account for qualitative and quantitative differences among college-age adults in several aspects of language comprehension. One aspect is syntactic modularity: The larger capacity of some individuals permits interaction among syntactic and pragmatic information, so that their syntactic processes are not informationally encapsulated. Another aspect is syntactic ambiguity: The larger capacity of some individuals permits them to maintain multiple interpretations. The theory is instantiated as a production system model in which the amount of activation available to the model affects how it adapts to the transient computational and storage demands that occur in comprehension. Working memory plays a central role in all forms of complex thinking, such as reasoning, problem solving, and language comprehension. However, its function in language comprehension is especially evident because comprehension entails processing
Halfa century of research on the Stroop effect: An integrative review
- PsychologicalBulletin
, 1991
"... The literature on interference in the Stroop Color-Word Task, covering over 50 years and some 400 studies, is organized and reviewed. In so doing, a set ofl 8 reliable empirical findings is isolated that must be captured by any successful theory of the Stroop effect. Existing theoretical positions a ..."
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Cited by 666 (14 self)
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The literature on interference in the Stroop Color-Word Task, covering over 50 years and some 400 studies, is organized and reviewed. In so doing, a set ofl 8 reliable empirical findings is isolated that must be captured by any successful theory of the Stroop effect. Existing theoretical positions are summarized and evaluated in view of this critical evidence and the 2 major candidate theories--relative speed of processing and automaticity of reading--are found to be wanting. It is concluded that recent theories placing the explanatory weight on parallel processing of the irrelevant and the relevant dimensions are likely to be more successful than are earlier theories attempting to locate a single bottleneck in attention. In 1935, J. R. Stroop published his landmark article on attention and interference, an article more influential now than it was then. Why has the Stroop task continued to fascinate us? Perhaps the task is seen as tapping into the primitive operations of cognition, offering clues to the fundamental process of attention. Perhaps the robustness of the phenomenon provides a special challenge to decipher. Together these are powerful attractions
A Computational Theory of Executive Cognitive Processes and Multiple-Task Performance: Part 2. . .
- PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW
, 1997
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The physics of optimal decision making: A formal analysis of models of performance in two-alternative forced choice tasks
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The PerceptionBehavior Expressway: Automatic Effects of Social Perception on Social Behavior”,
- Advances in Experimental Social Psychology,
, 2001
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Connectionist and Diffusion Models of Reaction Time
, 1997
"... Two connectionist frameworks, GRAIN (McClelland, 1993) and BSB (Anderson, 1991), and the diffusion model (Ratcliff, 1978) were evaluated using data from a signal detection task. Subjects were asked to choose one of two possible responses to a stimulus and were provided feedback about whether the cho ..."
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Cited by 234 (54 self)
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Two connectionist frameworks, GRAIN (McClelland, 1993) and BSB (Anderson, 1991), and the diffusion model (Ratcliff, 1978) were evaluated using data from a signal detection task. Subjects were asked to choose one of two possible responses to a stimulus and were provided feedback about whether the choice was correct. The dependent variables included response probabilities, reaction times for correct and error responses, and reaction time distributions, and the independent variables were stimulus value, stimulus probability, and lag from an abrupt switch in stimulus probability. The diffusion model accounted for all aspects of the asymptotic data, including error reaction times, which had previously been a problem. The connectionist models accounted for many aspects of the data adequately, but each failed to a greater or lesser degree in important ways except for one model very similar to the diffusion model. The connectionist learning mechanisms were unable to account for initial learning or abrupt changes in stimulus probability. The results provide an advance in the development of the diffusion model and show that the long tradition of reaction time research and theory is a fertile domain for development and testing of connectionist assumptions about how decisions are generated over time.
Learning the structure of event sequences
- JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: GENERAL
, 1991
"... How is complex sequential material acquired, processed, and represented when there is no intention to learn? Two experiments exploring a choice reaction time task are reported. Unknown to Ss, successive stimuli followed a sequence derived from a "noisy " finite-state grammar. After ..."
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Cited by 218 (28 self)
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How is complex sequential material acquired, processed, and represented when there is no intention to learn? Two experiments exploring a choice reaction time task are reported. Unknown to Ss, successive stimuli followed a sequence derived from a "noisy " finite-state grammar. After considerable practice (60,000 exposures) with Experiment 1, Ss acquired a complex body of procedural knowledge about the sequential structure of the material. Experiment 2 was an attempt to identify limits on Ss ability to encode the temporal context by using more distant contingencies that spanned irrelevant material. Taken together, the results indicate that Ss become increasingly sensitive to the temporal context set by previous elements of the sequence, up to 3 elements. Responses are also affected by priming effects from recent trials. A connectionist model that incorporates sensitivity to the sequential structure and to priming effects is shown to capture key aspects of both acquisition and processing and to account for the interaction between attention and sequence structure reported by Cohen, Ivry, and Keele (1990).