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111
Metacognitive and control strategies in study-time allocation
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 2000
"... This article investigates how people's metacognitive judgments influence subsequent study-time-allocation strategies. The authors present acomprehensive lit rature r view indicating that people allocate more study time to.judged-difficult than to judged-easy items--consistent with extant models ..."
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Cited by 68 (11 self)
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This article investigates how people's metacognitive judgments influence subsequent study-time-allocation strategies. The authors present acomprehensive lit rature r view indicating that people allocate more study time to.judged-difficult than to judged-easy items--consistent with extant models of study-time allocation. However, typically, the materials were short, and participants had ample time for study. In contrast, in Experiment 1,when participants had insufficient time to study, they allocated more time to the judged-easy items than to the judged-difficult items, especially when expecting a test. In Experiment 2,when the materials were shorter, people allocated more study time to the judged-difficuR materials. InExperiment 3, under high time pressure, people preferred studying judged-easy onnets; under moderate time pressure, they showed no preference, These results provide new evidence against extant theories of study-time allocation. The issue of how people use their metacognitive judg-ments about what they know and how well they know it to take control over their own learning is of primary concern in this article. The fact that in many situations people have
The dynamics of learning and allocation of study time to a region of proximal learning
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
, 2003
"... In contrast to the dominant discrepancy reduction model, which favors the most difficult items, people, given free choice, devoted most time to medium-difficulty items and studied the easiest items first. When study time was experimentally manipulated, best performance resulted when most time was gi ..."
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Cited by 44 (13 self)
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In contrast to the dominant discrepancy reduction model, which favors the most difficult items, people, given free choice, devoted most time to medium-difficulty items and studied the easiest items first. When study time was experimentally manipulated, best performance resulted when most time was given to the medium-difficulty items. Empirically determined information uptake functions revealed steep initial learning for easy items with little subsequent increase. For medium-difficulty items, initial gains were smaller but more sustained, suggesting that the strategy people had used, when given free choice, was largely appropriate. On the basis of the information uptake functions, a negative spacing effect was predicted and observed in the final experiment. Overall, the results favored the region of proximal learning framework. A number of researchers have argued that the central function of accurate metacognition is to provide people with optimal control of their own learning (Koriat, 2000; Nelson & Dunlosky, 1991; Nelson & Narens, 1990, 1994) by allowing them to allocate their study time effectively. Benjamin, Bjork, and Schwartz (1998) put it this way: “Poor self-monitoring capacity necessarily entails poor
Study efficacy and the region of proximal learning framework
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 2006
"... One of the most important reasons to investigate human metacognition is its role in directing how people study. However, limited evidence exists that metacognitively guided study benefits learning. Three experiments are presented that provide evidence for this link. In Experiment 1, participants ’ l ..."
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Cited by 43 (17 self)
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One of the most important reasons to investigate human metacognition is its role in directing how people study. However, limited evidence exists that metacognitively guided study benefits learning. Three experiments are presented that provide evidence for this link. In Experiment 1, participants ’ learning was enhanced when they were allowed to control what they studied. Experiments 2a–d replicated this finding and showed contributions of self-regulated study to learning. Experiments 3a and 3b showed that, when forced to choose among items they did not know, participants chose the easiest items and benefited from doing so, providing evidence for the link between metacognitive monitoring/control and learning, and supporting the region of proximal learning model of study-time allocation.
The intricate relationships between monitoring and control in metacognition: lessons for the cause-and-effect relation between subjective experience and
, 2006
"... Do we run away because we are frightened, or are we frightened because we run away? The authors address this issue with respect to the relation between metacognitive monitoring and metacognitive control. When self-regulation is goal driven, monitoring affects control processes so that increased proc ..."
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Cited by 40 (3 self)
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Do we run away because we are frightened, or are we frightened because we run away? The authors address this issue with respect to the relation between metacognitive monitoring and metacognitive control. When self-regulation is goal driven, monitoring affects control processes so that increased processing effort should enhance feelings of competence and feelings of knowing. In contrast, when self-regulation is data driven, such feelings may be based themselves on the feedback from control processes, in which case they should decrease with increasing effort. Evidence for both monitoring-based control and control-based monitoring occurring even in the same situation is presented. The results are discussed with regard to the issue of the cause-and-effect relation between subjective experience and behavior.
Toward a cognitive neuroscience of metacognition [comment
- Consciousness and Cognition
"... The relationship between metacognition and executive control is explored. According to an analysis by Fernandez-Duque, Baird, and Posner (this issue), metacognitive regulation involves attention, conflict resolution, error correction, inhibitory control, and emotional regulation. These aspects of me ..."
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Cited by 30 (1 self)
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The relationship between metacognition and executive control is explored. According to an analysis by Fernandez-Duque, Baird, and Posner (this issue), metacognitive regulation involves attention, conflict resolution, error correction, inhibitory control, and emotional regulation. These aspects of metacognition are presumed to be mediated by a neural circuit involving midfrontal brain regions. An evaluation of the proposal by Fernandez-Duque et al. is made, and it is suggested that there is considerable convergence of issues associated with metacognition, executive control, working memory, and frontal lobe function. By integrating these domains and issues, significant progress could be made toward a cognitive neuroscience of metacognition. ª 2000 Academic Press Metacognition refers to evaluation and control of one’s cognitive processes. In this way, metacognition often suggests conscious or volitional control of thoughts, memories, and actions. Early research in this area focused on metamemory—the eval-uation of memory processes (e.g., tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, feeling of know-ing) and awareness of mnemonic strategies that could facilitate remembering (see Nelson, 1992). Much of this work was sparked by developmental studies in which the
Metacognitive control and strategy selection: Deciding to practice retrieval during learning
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
, 2009
"... Retrieval practice is a potent technique for enhancing learning, but how often do students practice retrieval when they regulate their own learning? In 4 experiments the subjects learned foreign-language items across multiple study and test periods. When items were assigned to be repeatedly tested, ..."
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Cited by 25 (4 self)
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Retrieval practice is a potent technique for enhancing learning, but how often do students practice retrieval when they regulate their own learning? In 4 experiments the subjects learned foreign-language items across multiple study and test periods. When items were assigned to be repeatedly tested, repeatedly studied, or removed after they were recalled, repeated retrieval produced powerful effects on learning and retention. However, when subjects were given control over their own learning and could choose to test, study, or remove items, many subjects chose to remove items rather than practice retrieval, leading to poor retention. In addition, when tests were inserted in the learning phase, attempting retrieval improved learning by enhancing subsequent encoding during study. But when students were given control over their learning they did not attempt retrieval as early or as often as they should to promote the best learning. The experiments identify a compelling metacognitive illusion that occurs during self-regulated learning: Once students can recall an item they tend to believe they have “learned ” it. This leads students to terminate practice rather than practice retrieval, a strategy choice that ultimately results in poor retention.
When resistance is futile: Consequences of failed counterarguing for attitude certainty
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 2004
"... This research tests the notion that attitudes after a failed attempt to counterargue may be stronger than attitudes after undirected thinking. Specifically, failed counterarguing may be accompanied by unique metacognitions that serve to strengthen the attitude. The present research examines this iss ..."
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Cited by 25 (10 self)
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This research tests the notion that attitudes after a failed attempt to counterargue may be stronger than attitudes after undirected thinking. Specifically, failed counterarguing may be accompanied by unique metacognitions that serve to strengthen the attitude. The present research examines this issue by giving participants a very strong message and instructing them to counterargue or simply think about the message. Across several experiments, attitudes were as favorable when individuals were trying to counterargue as when they were simply thinking, indicating that counterarguing failed to instill any extra resistance. However, attitudes were held with greater certainty following failed counterarguing compared with following undirected thinking. Furthermore, attitudes following failed counterarguing were more predictive of subsequent behavioral intentions. The metacognitions that follow failed counterarguing are addressed. Currently popular models of persuasion such as the elaboration
Metacognition of agency
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
, 2007
"... The feeling that we are agents, intentionally making things happen by our own actions, is foundational to our understanding of ourselves as humans. People’s metacognitions of agency were investigated in 4 experiments. Participants played a game in which they tried to touch downward scrolling Xs and ..."
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Cited by 24 (2 self)
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The feeling that we are agents, intentionally making things happen by our own actions, is foundational to our understanding of ourselves as humans. People’s metacognitions of agency were investigated in 4 experiments. Participants played a game in which they tried to touch downward scrolling Xs and avoid touching Os. Variables that affected accuracy included speed of the scroll, density of the targets, and feedback. Of central interest were variables directed not only at accuracy but also at people’s control: the turbulence of the cursor and how close the cursor had to come to the target for a hit (i.e., “magic”). After each trial, people made judgments of agency or judgments of performance. People were selectively sensitive to the variables to which they should be responsive in agency monitoring—whether the cursor moved in close synchrony to their movements and whether targets disappeared by magic. People knew, separably from their objective or judged performance, when they were in control and when they were not. These results indicate that people can sensitively monitor their own agency.
Examining the testing effect with open- and closed-book tests
- Applied Cognitive Psychology
, 2008
"... Two experiments examined the testing effect with open-book tests, in which students view notes and textbooks while taking the test, and closed-book tests, in which students take the test without viewing notes or textbooks. Subjects studied prose passages and then restudied or took an open- or closed ..."
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Cited by 22 (12 self)
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Two experiments examined the testing effect with open-book tests, in which students view notes and textbooks while taking the test, and closed-book tests, in which students take the test without viewing notes or textbooks. Subjects studied prose passages and then restudied or took an open- or closed-book test. Taking either kind of test, with feedback, enhanced long-term retention relative to conditions in which subjects restudied material or took a test without feedback. Open-book testing led to better initial performance than closed-book testing, but this benefit did not persist and both types of testing produced equivalent retention on a delayed test. Subjects predicted they would recall more after repeated studying, even though testing enhanced long-term retention more than rest-udying. These experiments demonstrate that the testing effect occurs with both open- and closed-book tests, and that subjects fail to predict the effectiveness of testing relative to studying in enhancing later recall. Copyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. A growing body of research has shown that taking a test can do more than simply assess learning: Tests can also enhance learning and improve long-term retention, a phenomenon known as the testing effect (see Carpenter, Pashler, & Vul, 2006; Karpicke & Roediger, 2007b; McDaniel, Roediger, & McDermott, 2007; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006b). When
A revised methodology for research on metamemory
- Pre-judgment Recall And Monitoring (PRAM). Psychological Methods
, 2004
"... A revised methodology is described for research on metacognitive monitoring, especially judgments of learning (JOLs), to investigate psychological processing that previously has been only hypothetical and unobservable. During data collection a new stage of recall occurs just prior to the JOL, so tha ..."
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Cited by 19 (6 self)
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A revised methodology is described for research on metacognitive monitoring, especially judgments of learning (JOLs), to investigate psychological processing that previously has been only hypothetical and unobservable. During data collection a new stage of recall occurs just prior to the JOL, so that during data analysis the items can be partitioned into subcategories to measure the degree of JOL accuracy in ways that are more analytic than was previously possible. A weightedaverage combinatorial rule allows the component measures of JOL accuracy to be combined into the usual overall measure of metacognitive accuracy. An example using the revised methodology offers a new explanation for the delayed-JOL effect, in which delayed JOLs are more accurate than immediate JOLs for predicting recall. Since its inception in developmental psychology (e.g., Flavell, 1979; see also Butterfield, Nelson, & Peck, 1988), metacognition—which focuses on people’s self-monitoring and self-control of their own cognitions—has been of widespread interest in various areas of psychology (reviewed in Nelson, 1992), particularly including cognitive psychology (e.g., reviewed
