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... ultimately successful solution. Finally, he used a mathematical equation that corresponded to the solution to produce the appropriate numerical answer. In our own research with experts in chemistry (=-=Kozma & Russell, 1997-=-), we found that the patterns they create are both based on and distinct from the symbolic forms used to represent phenomena. In one task, experts examined chemical phenomena expressed in a variety of...

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...nculturated into a community of practice encounter specialized representations that are integral to the practices of that community and carry with them conventional semantics (e.g., Hundhausen, 2002; =-=Kozma & Russell, 1997-=-). In such a situation, development of competency with these representations is an imperative, and social scaffolding may interact with or overcome effects due to representational affordances. This po...

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...les, such as “force problems” or “energy problems”.sNovices willsorganize their groups based on surface features, such as “pulley problems” or “inclinedsplane problems”.sIn our experimental research (=-=Kozma & Russell, 1997-=-), we used a similar methodologysto study the differences between experts and novices in their use of externalsrepresentations of various sorts.sOur findings were similar to those in the studies above...

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...stry educators and researchers have explored how to help students develop a conceptual understanding of chemical representations (Ben-Zvi, Eylon, & Silberstein, 1986; Gabel, 1998; Keig & Rubba, 1993; =-=Kozma & Russell, 1997-=-). In this area of research three levels of representations in chemistry have been discussed: macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic levels (Gabel, 1998; Johnstone, 1993). At the macroscopic level che...

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...aka & Taylor, 1991). Related studies have shown that experts build fewer but more 772 STAINS AND TALANQUER Journal of Research in Science Teaching integrated classes during free classification tasks (=-=Kozma & Russell, 1997-=-), and make finer distinctions between groups (Rosch, Mervis, Gray, Johnson, & Boyesbraem, 1976). Studies of expert–novice differences in classification patterns in science have focused mostly on unde...

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...brium, or real time graphics, provide students with opportunities to visualize chemical processes at the microscopic level. According to empirical findings of their studies, Kozma and his colleagues (=-=Kozma, 1997-=-; Kozma, Chin, Russell, & Marx, 1997; Kozma et al., 1996) stated that the use of multiple linked representations helped students understand chemical equilibrium and its related chemical concepts. Addi...

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...se representations. Experienced chemists take for granted that chemical phenomena occur on many levels (Johnstone, 1993). Due to the submicroscopic level of molecular interactions, chemists must use symbols to refer to the atomic objects and processes within their domain which they cannot observe directly. Moreover, aggregations of molecules result in phenomena on a macroscopic level such as when water freezes or ice melts. On the symbolic level, where most teaching and learning take place in the traditional chemistry classroom, instructors use multiple representations for the same phenomena (Kozma & Russell, 1997). A particular chemical reaction may be represented on the blackboard with letters, molecular diagrams, or plots of concentration over time. In the laboratory, students are further expected to connect the symbolic representations in texts to the actual physical substances they use in an experiment and the numerical measurements they take from laboratory instruments. Although chemists may easily discern the relationships between chemical phenomena at the submicroscopic, microscopic and macroscopic levels and fluidly move between various symbolic representations of the phenomena, students have c...

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...earch by Kozma and Russell found significant differences between expert and novice chemists in terms of their ability to use multiple representational forms to construct an understanding of chemistry =-=[18]-=-. Research in other domains, such as climatology [19] and biology [20] has also documented the flexible nature of representational expertise. Earlier, we asked whether expert conceptions of technologi...

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...difficulties when learning and using scientific inscriptions (Krajcik, 1991; Leinhardt, Zaslavsky, & Stein, 1990). Students cannot selectively create or use certain inscriptions to explain phenomena (=-=Kozma & Russell, 1997-=-), do not use inscriptions as tools to expand their experience (Kozma, 2000a), and lack resources to interpret and create inscriptions meaningfully (Bowen, Roth, & McGinn, 1999). Thus, there is a need...

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...relevant characteristics and understand how they demonstrate new concepts. They must also know the scientific conventions (Habraken, 1996) and learn to tune out irrelevant or distracting information (=-=Kozma and Russell, 1997-=-). For example, Figure 1 was produced for use in research on the structure of water by a molecular dynamics NAMD simulation (Humphrey et al., 1996; Kalé et al., 1999). A chemist involved in this resea...