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Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of form in communicative classroom.
- Studies in Second Language Acquisition,
, 1997
"... This article presents a study of corrective feedback and learner uptake (i.e., responses to feedback) in four immersion classrooms at the primary level. Transcripts totaling 18.3 hours of classroom interaction taken from 14 subject-matter lessons and 13 French language arts lessons were analyzed us ..."
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This article presents a study of corrective feedback and learner uptake (i.e., responses to feedback) in four immersion classrooms at the primary level. Transcripts totaling 18.3 hours of classroom interaction taken from 14 subject-matter lessons and 13 French language arts lessons were analyzed using a model developed for the study and comprising the various moves in an error treatment sequence. Results include the frequency and distribution of the six different feedback types used by the four teachers, in addition to the frequency and distribution of different types of learner uptake following each feedback type. The findings indicate an overwhelming tendency for teachers to use recasts in spite of the latter's ineffectiveness at eliciting student-generated repair. Four other feedback types-elicitation, metalinguistic feedback, clarification requests, and repetition-lead to This research was funded by grants from the Quebec Ministry of Education's research funding agency (Fonds pour la formation de chercheurs et l'aide à la recherche) and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. We gratefully acknowledge the generous cooperation of the participating teachers and their students. We are also grateful to the following research assistants, who contributed to various phases of this study: Dawn Allen, Linda Corliss, Yakov Goldstein, Randall Halter, Thierry Karsenti, Lyne Laganière, Tamara Loring, Nina Padden, James Poirier, and Nicole Sabourin. Finally, we thank Patsy Lightbown, Nina Spada, and four anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on earlier versions of this paper. Address correspondance to Roy Lyster, Department of Second Language Education, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3A 1Y2; e-mail: cxrl@musica.mcgill.ca, or to Leila Ranta, e-mail: laranta@vax2.concordia.ca. ERROR CORRECTION AND COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING The issue of how competent speakers react to learners' language errors takes on many guises depending on the disciplinary orientation of the researcher. It has been examined in terms of negative evidence by linguists (e.g., There are, however, a number of good state-of-the-art discussions of error treatment in classroom SLA In contrast to the experimental orientation of the studies that have examined the utility of error correction, the other questions posed by Hendrickson (concerning when, how, and which) have been addressed by observational studies of teachers in their own classrooms. 1 Thus, an early study by Of the larger scale investigations, Hamayan and Tucker (1980) examined specific aspects of teacher input provided to French immersion and French first language (L1) classes at the Grade 3 and Grade 5 levels in the Montreal area. One part of the study focused on teaching strategies, including error correction practices. They found a significant difference between the L1 and L2 teachers' correcting behavior: The French immersion teachers tended to explicitly correct the L2 learners more in the earlier grade than in the later grade, but the reverse pattern was found with the native speaker classes where more correction took place in the higher grade. Finally, in the context of adult French foreign language learning in Australia, Doughty (1994a) reported on a pilot study involving 6 hours of interaction in one class on three different occasions. She was interested in comparing L2 classroom learning to L1 acquisition in terms of the degree to which feedback is finely tuned. Student turns were coded for number of errors, and teacher turns were coded for the type of feedback (either clarification request, repetition, recast, expansion, or translation). The teacher provided feedback on 43% of the erroneous learner turns and tended to give feedback to learner turns that had only one error rather than those with many errors. The teacher also tended to repeat student utterances only when they were well formed. Doughty concluded, tentatively, that the feedback to L2 learners is predictable in the same way that the input for L1 learners is and that learners respond in a way that suggests that the information conveyed by the teacher is noticed. This result is in sharp contrast to Fanselow's findings and may highlight the expertise of this particular teacher and the expertise of these particular students rather than providing a generalization about L2 learning in the classroom. This review of existing studies concerning error treatment in communicative language teaching provides a sketchy picture at best. Further research that examines relationships among different variables in a variety of teaching contexts is necessary. In this paper, we propose to respond to this need by reporting on a study whose purpose is twofold: 1. To develop an analytic model comprising the various moves in an error treatment sequence in L2 classrooms. 2. To apply the model to a database of interaction in four primary-level French immersion classrooms with a view to documenting the frequency and distribution of corrective feedback in relation to learner uptake, that is, student responses to corrective feedback.
Negotiation of Form, Recasts, and Explicit Correction in relation to error types and learner repair in immersion classrooms
, 2001
"... This study investigated specific patterns of a reactive approach to form-focused instruction: namely, corrective feedback and its relationship to error types and immediate learner repair. The database is drawn from transcripts of audio recordings made in four French immersion class-rooms at the elem ..."
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Cited by 93 (3 self)
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This study investigated specific patterns of a reactive approach to form-focused instruction: namely, corrective feedback and its relationship to error types and immediate learner repair. The database is drawn from transcripts of audio recordings made in four French immersion class-rooms at the elementary level, totaling 18.3 hours and including 921 error sequences. The 921 learner errors were coded as grammatical, lexical, or phonological, or as unso-licited uses of L1. Corrective feedback moves were coded as explicit correction, recast, or negotiation of form (i.e., elicitation, metalinguistic clues, clarification requests, or repetition of error).
The political language of
, 1988
"... A study investigated whether, when second language learners engage in second-language interaction, opportunities to comprehend and produce the second language are conditioned by their gender and/or the correspondence between their gender and that of the interlocutor. The interactions of a native spe ..."
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Cited by 92 (0 self)
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A study investigated whether, when second language learners engage in second-language interaction, opportunities to comprehend and produce the second language are conditioned by their gender and/or the correspondence between their gender and that of the interlocutor. The interactions of a native speaker (NS) and a non-native speaker (NNS) in same- and cross-gender dyads were analyzed in four information exchange tasks. Subjects were 12 male and 20 female native speakers of American English and 17 male and 15 female native speakers of Japanese learning English as a Second Language, all at the low-intermediate level. Results did not show a clear-cut role for NNS gender as a discriminating factor in frequency of negotiated interaction and its associated opportunities for comprehension of input, feedback on production, and modification of output. What emerged from testing of hypotheses was a complex interaction of both gender and task type in providing and inhibiting these opportunities. The framework for coding data on negotiated interactions and a diagram of one of the tasks are appended, and a 52-item bibliography is included. (MSE) Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. *****************************t*****************************************
Multimedia CALL: Lessons to be learned from research on instructed SLA
- Language Learning and Technology
, 1998
"... This paper suggests that some design features and evaluation criteria for multimedia CALL might be developed on the basis of hypotheses about ideal conditions for second language acquisition (SLA). It outlines a relevant theory of SLA and enumerates the hypotheses it implies for ideal conditions suc ..."
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Cited by 81 (0 self)
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This paper suggests that some design features and evaluation criteria for multimedia CALL might be developed on the basis of hypotheses about ideal conditions for second language acquisition (SLA). It outlines a relevant theory of SLA and enumerates the hypotheses it implies for ideal conditions such as input saliency, opportunities for interaction, and learner focus on communication. Implications of each hypothesis for multimedia CALL design and evaluation are outlined and exemplified.
Computer-mediated negotiated interaction: An expanded model.
- Modern Language Journal,
, 2003
"... This study examines task-based, synchronous computer-mediated communication (CMC) among intermediate-level learners of English. The research specifically explores (a) whether learners engage in negotiated interaction when they encounter new lexical items, (b) whether task type has an effect on the ..."
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Cited by 61 (0 self)
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This study examines task-based, synchronous computer-mediated communication (CMC) among intermediate-level learners of English. The research specifically explores (a) whether learners engage in negotiated interaction when they encounter new lexical items, (b) whether task type has an effect on the amount of negotiation that transpires, and (c) how this computer-mediated negotiation compares to that noted in the face-to-face literature. Fourteen nonnative-nonnative dyads collaboratively completed 4 communicative tasks using ChatNet, a browser-based chat program. Each dyad completed 2 jigsaw and 2 decision-making tasks, which were each "seeded" with 8 target lexical items. The chatscripts reveal that learners do in fact negotiate for meaning in the CMC environment when nonunderstanding occurs. Furthermore, task type was found to have a definite influence on the extent to which learners engaged in negotiation, but not necessarily in the same way that has been observed in the face-to-face literature. Though the negotiation that occurs in the CMC environment proceeds in ways that are roughly similar to face-to-face negotiation, the observed differences call for a new model of computer-mediated negotiation. This new model is presented as a more accurate tool for describing computer-mediated negotiated interaction than those offered to chart face-to-face negotiation episodes. AS THE PROLIFERATION OF COMPUTERS IN the language learning classroom continues, it is important for language teachers embracing the use of computer technology to understand the norms of language use during computer-mediated interaction and their potential relationship to second language acquisition (SLA). The use of synchronous computer-mediated communication (CMC) in particular has recently increased in the communicative language classroom through freeware and readily-available Webbased "chat" programs such as AOL Instant Messenger and Yahoo Messenger, among countless others. In general, CMC appears to be a potentially useful tool for language teaching and learning as well as for research into both second language use and acquisition. Research suggests that CMC may elicit more (and more equitable) learner participation Though the use of well-crafted communicative activities, which promote learner-learner interaction, is generally considered sound pedagogical practice, the theoretical and empirical support for the efficacy of such activities for facilitating SLA is less than conclusive. Nevertheless, it is widely held that communicative interaction
Developing L2 oral proficiency through synchronous CMC: Output, working memory, and interlanguage development
- Language Learning & Technology
, 2002
"... A naturalistic experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that synchronous computer-mediated communication (CMC) can indirectly improve L2 oral pro-ficiency by developing the same cognitive mechanisms underlying spontaneous conversational speech. The theoretical framework guiding this inquiry c ..."
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Cited by 49 (2 self)
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A naturalistic experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that synchronous computer-mediated communication (CMC) can indirectly improve L2 oral pro-ficiency by developing the same cognitive mechanisms underlying spontaneous conversational speech. The theoretical framework guiding this inquiry consists of Levelt’s (1989) model of language production augmented by concepts from Working Memory theory. The findings show a significant difference between the experimental and control groups oral proficiency development with participants in the experimental condition (two of four contact hours per week were in a chatroom) scoring higher than participants in the control condition. Implications for language instruction and the second language oral proficiency development for different types of learners are discussed.
Negotiation for meaning and peer assistance in second language classrooms
- Applied Linguistics
, 2005
"... This paper investigates the value of language classroom negotiation of meaning from both cognitive and sociocultural perspectives. According to Long (1985, 1996) comprehensible input gained through interactional adjust-ments such as negotiating meaning and modifying output is central to second langu ..."
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Cited by 36 (0 self)
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This paper investigates the value of language classroom negotiation of meaning from both cognitive and sociocultural perspectives. According to Long (1985, 1996) comprehensible input gained through interactional adjust-ments such as negotiating meaning and modifying output is central to second language acquisition, and much research has been undertaken to discover which classroom activities give learners the greatest benefit from this type of interaction (Pica 1994). This paper discusses the measures typically used to identify negotiated interaction and proposes that more rigorous definitions need to be employed to separate signals of communication problems from signals of interest and encouragement. In the study reported for this paper, learners were recorded during an interactive classroom task, and the incidence of negotiation moves (learners ’ clarification requests, comprehension and confirmation checks) was calculated by counting only those instances where communication problems were clearly signalled. The quantitative results show that the incidence of negotiating meaning was very low. A qualitative analysis of the data subsequently investigated what was going on in the long stretches of interaction that lacked any signs of meaning negotiation. A picture emerges of learners actively assisting each other to transact the task through co-construction and prompting. Learners expressed interest and encouragement while seeking and providing assistance and initiating self-repair of their own utterances, all in the absence of communication breakdowns. Obtaining completely comprehensible input appeared to be of lower priority than maintaining a supportive and friendly discourse. Negotiation is one of a range of conversational processes that facilitate SLA as learners work to understand and express meaning in the L2.
Negative feedback and positive evidence in task-based interaction
- Studies in Second Language Acquisition (2003
"... This study examines the role of task-based conversation in second language (L2) grammatical development, focusing on the short-term effects of both negative feedback and positive evidence on the ac-quisition of two Japanese structures. The data are drawn from 55 L2 learners of Japanese at a beginnin ..."
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Cited by 35 (0 self)
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This study examines the role of task-based conversation in second language (L2) grammatical development, focusing on the short-term effects of both negative feedback and positive evidence on the ac-quisition of two Japanese structures. The data are drawn from 55 L2 learners of Japanese at a beginning level of proficiency in an Austra-lian tertiary institution. Five different types of interactional moves made by native speaker interlocutors during task-based interaction were identified, by way of which learners received implicit negative feed-back and positive evidence about the two target structures. The rela-tive frequency of each interactional move type was calculated, and associated changes in the learners ’ performance on immediate and delayed posttests were examined. It was found that, although native speaker interactional moves containing positive evidence about the two target structures were 10 times more frequent during task-based language learning than those containing implicit negative feedback, only learners who had an above-average score on the pretest bene-fited from the positive evidence provided. Implicit negative feedback,
CONVERSATIONS-- AND NEGOTIATED INTERACTION-- IN TEXT AND VOICE CHAT ROOMS
"... Despite the expanded use of the Internet for language learning and practice, little attention if any has been given to the quality of interaction among English L2 speakers in conversational text or voice chat rooms. This study explored the patterns of repair moves in synchronous non-native speaker ( ..."
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Cited by 19 (0 self)
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Despite the expanded use of the Internet for language learning and practice, little attention if any has been given to the quality of interaction among English L2 speakers in conversational text or voice chat rooms. This study explored the patterns of repair moves in synchronous non-native speaker (NNS) text chat rooms in comparison to voice chat rooms on the Internet. The following questions were posed: (a) Which types of repair moves occur in text and voice chats; and (b) what are the differences, if any, between the repair moves in text chats and voice chats when time is held constant? Repair moves made by anonymous NNSs in 10, 5-minute, synchronous chat room sessions (5 text-chat sessions, 5 voice-chat sessions) were counted and analyzed using chi-square with alpha set at.05. Significant differences were found between the higher number of total repair moves made in voice chats and the smaller number in text chats. Qualitative data analysis showed that repair work in voice chats was often pronunciation-related. The study includes discussion that may affect teachers ' and learners ' considerations of the value of NNS chat room interaction for second language development. LANGUAGE LEARNING VIA INTERACTION AND REPAIR MOVES Social interaction is essential to language learning, according to the arguments presented by studies based in the communicative approach to language teaching (see, e.g., Hall & Verplaetse, 2000; Lantolf, 2000; Long, 1983, 1996; Pica, 1994). Empirical evidence suggests that social interaction is a wellspring for negotiation of meaning, a communicative exchange that sustains and repairs conversations (Long 1983, 1996; Pica, 1994). Negotiation of meaning is a cognitive process that speakers use to better understand one another, that is, to increase the comprehensibility of language input. Furthermore, negotiation of
Reexamining the role of recasts in native-speaker/nonnative-speaker interactions
- Language Learning
, 2002
"... This study examines the occurrence and use of recasts in adult native-speaker/nonnative-speaker interactions in a nonclassroom setting. The study focuses on native-speaker recasts in three types of negotiations: one-signal negotiated interactions, extended negotiated interactions (Pica, 1988), and n ..."
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Cited by 16 (0 self)
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This study examines the occurrence and use of recasts in adult native-speaker/nonnative-speaker interactions in a nonclassroom setting. The study focuses on native-speaker recasts in three types of negotiations: one-signal negotiated interactions, extended negotiated interactions (Pica, 1988), and nonnegotiated interactions, and on re-casts in response to nonnative speaker levels of grammati-cality (single vs. multiple errors) resulting from four conversation tasks. The results show that recasts occur in different patterns than those reported in earlier research, but that these recasts are nevertheless used at rates con-sistent with previous research. These findings raise ques-tions concerning current criteria for determining the Susan M. Braidi, Department of Foreign Languages. I would like to thank the following people who have helped in the prepa-ration of this paper: Jennifer Thomas for help with data coding, James Dybdahl for data transcription, Pam Erramuzpe for research assistance, Dan Chilko and Magdalena Niewiadomska-Bugaj for their assistance with the statistical analysis, Frank W Medley, Jr., for comments on previous drafts, and the students for their participation in the study. This research was funded
