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A Taxonomy of Obfuscating Transformations
, 1997
"... It has become more and more common to distribute software in forms that retain most or all of the information present in the original source code. An important example is Java bytecode. Since such codes are easy to decompile, they increase the risk of malicious reverse engineering attacks. In this p ..."
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Cited by 311 (22 self)
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It has become more and more common to distribute software in forms that retain most or all of the information present in the original source code. An important example is Java bytecode. Since such codes are easy to decompile, they increase the risk of malicious reverse engineering attacks. In this paper we review several techniques for technical protection of software secrets. We will argue that automatic code obfuscation is currently the most viable method for preventing reverse engineering. We then describe the design of a code obfuscator, a tool which converts a program into an equivalent one that is more difficult to understand and reverse engineer. The obfuscator is based on the application of code transformations, in many cases similar to those used by compiler optimizers. We describe a large number of such transformations, classify them, and evaluate them with respect to their potency (To what degree is a human reader confused?), resilience (How well are automatic deobfuscati...
A Critique of Software Defect Prediction Models
- IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SOFTWARE ENGINEERING
, 1999
"... Many organizations want to predict the number of defects (faults) in software systems, before they are deployed, to gauge the likely delivered quality and maintenance effort. To help in this numerous software metrics and statistical models have been developed, with a correspondingly large literatur ..."
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Cited by 293 (21 self)
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Many organizations want to predict the number of defects (faults) in software systems, before they are deployed, to gauge the likely delivered quality and maintenance effort. To help in this numerous software metrics and statistical models have been developed, with a correspondingly large literature. We provide a critical review of this literature and the state-of-the-art. Most of the wide range of prediction models use size and complexity metrics to predict defects. Others are based on testing data, the “quality ” of the development process, or take a multivariate approach. The authors of the models have often made heroic contributions to a subject otherwise bereft of empirical studies. However, there are a number of serious theoretical and practical problems in many studies. The models are weak because of their inability to cope with the, as yet, unknown relationship between defects and failures. There are fundamental statistical and data quality problems that undermine model validity. More significantly many prediction models tend to model only part of the underlying problem and seriously misspecify it. To illustrate these points the “Goldilock’s Conjecture,” that there is an optimum module size, is used to show the considerable problems inherent in current defect prediction approaches. Careful and considered analysis of past and new results shows that the conjecture lacks support and that some models are misleading. We recommend holistic models for software defect prediction, using Bayesian Belief Networks, as alternative approaches to the single-issue models used at present. We also argue for research into a theory of “software decomposition” in order to test hypotheses about defect introduction and help construct a better science of software engineering.
A Unified Framework for Coupling Measurement in Object-Oriented Systems
, 1996
"... The increasing importance being placed on software measurement has lead to an increased amount of research developing new software measures. Given the importance of object-oriented development techniques, one specific area where this has occurred is coupling measurement in object-oriented systems. H ..."
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Cited by 259 (17 self)
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The increasing importance being placed on software measurement has lead to an increased amount of research developing new software measures. Given the importance of object-oriented development techniques, one specific area where this has occurred is coupling measurement in object-oriented systems. However, despite a very interesting and rich body of work, there is little understanding of the motivation and empirical hypotheses behind many of these new measures. It is often difficult to determine how such measures relate to one another and for which application they can be used. As a consequence, it is very difficult for practitioners and researchers to obtain a clear picture of the state-of-the-art in order to select or define measures for object-oriented systems. This situation is addressed and clarified through several different activities. First, a standardized terminology and formalism for expressing measures is provided which ensures that all measures using it are expressed in a f...
A Unified Framework for Cohesion Measurement in ObjectOriented Systems
- Empirical Software Eng.—An Int’l J
, 1998
"... Abstract. The increasing importance being placed on software measurement has led to an increased amount of research developing new software measures. Given the importance of object-oriented development techniques, one specific area where this has occurred is cohesion measurement in object-oriented s ..."
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Cited by 209 (20 self)
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Abstract. The increasing importance being placed on software measurement has led to an increased amount of research developing new software measures. Given the importance of object-oriented development techniques, one specific area where this has occurred is cohesion measurement in object-oriented systems. However, despite a very interesting body of work, there is little understanding of the motivation and empirical hypotheses behind many of these new measures. It is often difficult to determine how such measures relate to one another and for which application they can be used. As a consequence, it is very difficult for practitioners and researchers to obtain a clear picture of the state-of-the-art in order to select or define cohesion measures for object-oriented systems. This situation is addressed and clarified through several different activities. First, a standardized terminology and formalism for expressing measures is provided which ensures that all measures using it are expressed in a fully consistent and operational manner. Second, to provide a structured synthesis, a review of the existing approaches to measure cohesion in object-oriented systems takes place. Third, a unified framework, based on the issues discovered in the review, is provided and all existing measures are then classified according to this framework. Finally, a review of the empirical validation work concerning existing cohesion measures is provided. This paper contributes to an increased understanding of the state-of-the-art: a mechanism is provided for comparing measures and their potential use, integrating existing measures which examine the same concepts in
Property-based Software Engineering Measurement
- IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering
, 1996
"... Little theory exists in the field of software system measurement. Concepts such as complexity, coupling, cohesion or even size are very often subject to interpretation and appear to have inconsistent definitions in the literature. As a consequence, there is little guidance provided to the analyst at ..."
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Cited by 207 (23 self)
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Little theory exists in the field of software system measurement. Concepts such as complexity, coupling, cohesion or even size are very often subject to interpretation and appear to have inconsistent definitions in the literature. As a consequence, there is little guidance provided to the analyst attempting to define proper measures for specific problems. Many controversies in the literature are simply misunderstandings and stem from the fact that some people talk about different measurement concepts under the same label (complexity is the most common case). There is a need to define unambiguously the most important measurement concepts used in the measurement of software products. One way of doing so is to define precisely what mathematical properties characterize these concepts, regardless of the specific software artifacts to which these concepts are applied. Such a mathematical framework could generate a consensus in the software engineering community and provide a means for better...
Mining metrics to predict component failures
- In Proc. 28 th Int’l Conf. on Softw. Eng
, 2006
"... What is it that makes software fail? In an empirical study of the post-release defect history of five Microsoft software systems, we found that failure-prone software entities are statistically correlated with code complexity measures. However, there is no single set of complexity metrics that could ..."
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Cited by 196 (9 self)
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What is it that makes software fail? In an empirical study of the post-release defect history of five Microsoft software systems, we found that failure-prone software entities are statistically correlated with code complexity measures. However, there is no single set of complexity metrics that could act as a universally best defect predictor. Using principal component analysis on the code metrics, we built regression models that accurately predict the likelihood of post-release defects for new entities. The approach can easily be generalized to arbitrary projects; in particular, predictors obtained from one project can also be significant for new, similar projects.
Exploring the Relationships between Design Measures and Software Quality in Object-Oriented Systems
, 1998
"... The first goal of this paper is to empirically explore the relationships between existing object-oriented coupling, cohesion, and inheritance measures and the probability of fault detection in system classes during testing. In other words, we wish to better understand the relationship between exi ..."
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Cited by 188 (10 self)
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The first goal of this paper is to empirically explore the relationships between existing object-oriented coupling, cohesion, and inheritance measures and the probability of fault detection in system classes during testing. In other words, we wish to better understand the relationship between existing design measurement in OO systems and the quality of the software developed. The second goal is to propose an investigation and analysis strategy to make these kind of studies more repeatable and comparable, a problem which is pervasive in the literature on quality measurement. Results show that many of the measures capture similar dimensions in the data set, thus reflecting the fact that many of them are based on similar principles and hypotheses. However, it is shown that by using a subset of measures, accurate models can be built to predict which classes contain most of the existing faults. When predicting fault-prone classes, the best model shows a percentage of correct clas...
Towards a Framework for Software Measurement Validation
- IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering
, 1995
"... Abstract-In this paper we propose a framework for validating software measurement. We start by defining a measurement structure model that identifies the elementary component of measures and the measurement process, and then consider five other models involved in measurement: unit definition models, ..."
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Cited by 188 (1 self)
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Abstract-In this paper we propose a framework for validating software measurement. We start by defining a measurement structure model that identifies the elementary component of measures and the measurement process, and then consider five other models involved in measurement: unit definition models, instrumentation models, attribute relationship models, measure-ment protocols and entity population models. We consider a number of measures from the viewpoint of our measurement vali-dation framework and identify a number of shortcomings; in particular we identify a number of problems with the construc-tion of function points. We also compare our view of measure-ment validation with ideas presented by other researchers and identify a number of areas of disagreement. Finally, we suggest several rules that practitioners and researchers can use to avoid measurement problems, including the use of measurement vectors rather than artificially contrived scalars. Index Terms-Measurement theory, software measurement, software metrics validation.
Finding Refactorings via Change Metrics
- IN PROCEEDINGS OF OOPSLA ’2000 (INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON OBJECT-ORIENTED PROGRAMMING SYSTEMS, LANGUAGES AND APPLICATIONS
, 1999
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Cohesion and Reuse in an Object-Oriented System
, 1995
"... We define and apply two new measures of object-oriented class cohesion to a reasonably large C++ system. We find that most of the classes are quite cohesive, but that the classes that are reused more frequently via inheritance exhibit clearly lower cohesion. 1 Introduction Software developers aim ..."
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Cited by 160 (10 self)
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We define and apply two new measures of object-oriented class cohesion to a reasonably large C++ system. We find that most of the classes are quite cohesive, but that the classes that are reused more frequently via inheritance exhibit clearly lower cohesion. 1 Introduction Software developers aim for systems with high cohesion and low coupling. The value of these goals has not been validated empirically [6]. Rather, they have been justified on the basis of intuition. The amount of reuse --- the number of times that a component is reused --- is an indicator of reusability. Of course, other factors such as the usefulness of a component are also components of reusability. Cohesion refers to the "relatedness" of module components. A highly cohesive component is one with one basic function. It should be difficult to split a cohesive component. Cohesion can be classified using an ordinal scale that ranges from the least desirable category--- coincidental cohesion---to the most desirable--...
