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The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance
- Psychological Review
, 1993
"... The theoretical framework presented in this article explains expert performance as the end result of individuals ' prolonged efforts to improve performance while negotiating motivational and external constraints. In most domains of expertise, individuals begin in their childhood a regimen of ef ..."
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Cited by 690 (15 self)
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The theoretical framework presented in this article explains expert performance as the end result of individuals ' prolonged efforts to improve performance while negotiating motivational and external constraints. In most domains of expertise, individuals begin in their childhood a regimen of effortful activities (deliberate practice) designed to optimize improvement. Individual differences, even among elite performers, are closely related to assessed amounts of deliberate practice. Many characteristics once believed to reflect innate talent are actually the result of intense practice extended for a minimum of 10 years. Analysis of expert performance provides unique evidence on the potential and limits of extreme environmental adaptation and learning. Our civilization has always recognized exceptional individuals, whose performance in sports, the arts, and science is vastly superior to that of the rest of the population. Speculations on the causes of these individuals ' extraordinary abilities and performance are as old as the first records of their achievements. Early accounts commonly attribute these individuals' outstanding performance to divine intervention, such as the
Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation -- A 35-Year Odyssey
, 2002
"... The authors summarize 35 years of empirical research on goal-setting theory. They describe the core findings of the theory, the mechanisms by which goals operate, moderators of goal effects, the relation of goals and satisfaction, and the role of goals as mediators of incentives. The external validi ..."
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Cited by 501 (10 self)
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The authors summarize 35 years of empirical research on goal-setting theory. They describe the core findings of the theory, the mechanisms by which goals operate, moderators of goal effects, the relation of goals and satisfaction, and the role of goals as mediators of incentives. The external validity and practical significance of goal-setting theory are explained, and new directions in goal-setting research are discussed. The relationships of goal setting to other theories are described as are the theory’s limitations.
A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 1997
"... A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation was proposed and tested in a college classroom. Mastery, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals were assessed and their antecedents and consequences examined. Results indicated that mastery goals were grounded in ac ..."
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Cited by 377 (31 self)
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A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation was proposed and tested in a college classroom. Mastery, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals were assessed and their antecedents and consequences examined. Results indicated that mastery goals were grounded in achievement motivation and high competence expectancies; performance-avoidance goals, in fear of failure and low competence expectancies; and performance-approach goals, in ach.ievement motivation, fear of failure, and high competence expectancies. Mastery goals facilitated intrinsic motivation, performance-approach goals enhanced graded performance, and performanceavoidance goals proved inimical to both intrinsic motivation and graded performance. The proposed model represents an integration of classic and contemporary approaches to the study of achievement motivation. Achievement motivation is a ubiquitous feature of daily life. In the classroom, at the workplace, and on the ballfield individuals strive to be competent in their effortful activities. In the past decade, many theorists have utilized a social-cognitive, achievement goal approach in accounting for individuals ' competence-relevant
Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings
- Review of Educational Research
, 1996
"... The purpose of this article is to examine the contribution made by the self-efficacy component of Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory to the study of self-regulation and motivation in academic settings. The difference between self-efficacy beliefs and other expectancy constructs is first e ..."
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Cited by 369 (3 self)
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The purpose of this article is to examine the contribution made by the self-efficacy component of Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory to the study of self-regulation and motivation in academic settings. The difference between self-efficacy beliefs and other expectancy constructs is first explained, fol lowed by a brief overview of problems in self-efficacy research. Findings on the relationship between self-efficacy, motivation constructs, and academic performances are then summarized. These findings demonstrate that particu larized measures of self-efficacy that correspond to the criterial tasks with which they are compared surpass global measures in the explanation and prediction of related outcomes. The conceptual difference between the defi nition and use of expectancy beliefs in social cognitive theory and in expect ancy value and self-concept theory is then clarified. Last, strategies to guide future research are offered. In Social Foundations of Thought and Action, Albert Bandura (1986) wrote that individuals possess a self system that enables them to exercise a measure of
Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?
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, 1999
"... It is assumed that people seek positive self-regard; that is, they are motivated to possess, enhance, and maintain positive self-views. The cross-cultural generalizability of such motivations was addressed by examining Japanese culture. Anthropological, sociological, and psychological analyses revea ..."
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Cited by 342 (38 self)
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It is assumed that people seek positive self-regard; that is, they are motivated to possess, enhance, and maintain positive self-views. The cross-cultural generalizability of such motivations was addressed by examining Japanese culture. Anthropological, sociological, and psychological analyses revealed that many elements of Japanese culture are incongruent with such motivations. Moreover, the empirical literature provides scant evidence for a need for positive self-regard among Japanese and indicates that a self-critical focus is more characteristic of Japanese. It is argued that the need for self-regard must be culturally variant because the constructions of self and regard themselves differ across cultures. The need for positive self-regard, as it is currently conceptualized, is not a universal, but rather is rooted in significant aspects of North American culture. Conventional interpretations of positive self-regard are too narrow to encompass the Japanese experience.
Temporal construal
- Psychological Review
, 2003
"... Construal level theory proposes that temporal distance changes people’s responses to future events by changing the way people mentally represent those events. The greater the temporal distance, the more likely are events to be represented in terms of a few abstract features that convey the perceived ..."
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Cited by 327 (27 self)
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Construal level theory proposes that temporal distance changes people’s responses to future events by changing the way people mentally represent those events. The greater the temporal distance, the more likely are events to be represented in terms of a few abstract features that convey the perceived essence of the events (high-level construals) rather than in terms of more concrete and incidental details of the events (low-level construals). The informational and evaluative implications of high-level construals, compared with those of low-level construals, should therefore have more impact on responses to distant-future events than near-future events. This article explores the implications of construal level theory for temporal changes in evaluation, prediction, and choice. The authors suggest that construal level underlies a broad range of evaluative and behavioral consequences of psychological distance from events.
Performance in Competitive Environments: Gender Differences,” Quarterly
- Journal of Economics
, 2002
"... Even though the provision of equal opportunities for men and women has been a priority in many countries, large gender differences prevail in competitive high-ranking positions. Suggested explanations include discrimination and dif-ferences in preferences and human capital. In this paper we present ..."
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Cited by 297 (23 self)
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Even though the provision of equal opportunities for men and women has been a priority in many countries, large gender differences prevail in competitive high-ranking positions. Suggested explanations include discrimination and dif-ferences in preferences and human capital. In this paper we present experimental evidence in support of an additional factor: women may be less effective than men in competitive environments, even if they are able to perform similarly in non-competitive environments. In a laboratory experiment we observe, as we increase the competitiveness of the environment, a significant increase in performance for men, but not for women. This results in a significant gender gap in performance in tournaments, while there is no gap when participants are paid according to piece rate. This effect is stronger when women have to compete against men than in single-sex competitive environments: this suggests that women may be able to perform in competitive environments per se. I.
From Practice Fields to Communities of Practice
"... In writing this chapter, we (a constructivist and a situativity theorist) struggled with the distinction between situativity and constructivism. and the implications in terms of the design of learning contexts. In clarifying (and justifying) our two sides, we created straw man and pOinted fingers wi ..."
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Cited by 214 (21 self)
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In writing this chapter, we (a constructivist and a situativity theorist) struggled with the distinction between situativity and constructivism. and the implications in terms of the design of learning contexts. In clarifying (and justifying) our two sides, we created straw man and pOinted fingers with respect to the limitations of each other's perspectives. We found that although discussions of situativity and of constructivism draw on different references and clearly have specialized languages, actual interpretations of situativity and of constructivism share many underlying similarities. Further, when it came to the design of learning contexts predicated on our respective theories, we found ourselves continuously forwarding similar principles and advocating for similar learning contexts. We are dealing with evolving concepts-and people use new terms to include and extend old ones. Constructivism was the label used for the departure from objectivism; however, even among those who call themselves constructivists there are different perspectives and different sets of assumptions (see Cobb, 1994, 1995; Phillips, 1995). Now the term more commonly used is situated, reflecting the key proposal from both the constructivist and situativity perspective that knowledge is situated through experience. In the context of this chapter, we found it trivial to distinguish among those learning theories and principles related to constructivism and those related to situativity theory. Rather, we discuss the various learning theories that have informed our understanding all unde ~ the heading of situativity learning theories. This term, and its associated assumptions and current interpretations, seemed to better capture the essence of the learning contexts we are forwarding as useful. However, even within the context of situativity theories we found it necessary to make distinctions, and it was these distinctions (not the distinction between constructivist and situativity views) that best captured the essence of this chapter.
The role of self-efficacy and self-concept beliefs in mathematical problem-solving: A path analysis
- Journal of Educational Psychology
, 1994
"... Path analysis was used to test the predictive and mediational role of self-efficacy beliefs in mathematical problem solving. Results revealed that math self-efficacy was more predictive of problem solving than was math self-concept, perceived usefulness of mathematics, prior experi-ence with mathema ..."
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Cited by 179 (3 self)
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Path analysis was used to test the predictive and mediational role of self-efficacy beliefs in mathematical problem solving. Results revealed that math self-efficacy was more predictive of problem solving than was math self-concept, perceived usefulness of mathematics, prior experi-ence with mathematics, or gender (N = 350). Self-efficacy also mediated the effect of gender and prior experience on self-concept, perceived usefulness, and problem solving. Gender and prior experience influenced self-concept, perceived usefulness, and problem solving largely through the mediational role of self-efficacy. Men had higher performance, self-efficacy, and self-concept and lower anxiety, but these differences were due largely to the influence of self-efficacy, for gender had a direct effect only on self-efficacy and a prior experience variable. Results support the hypothesized role of self-efficacy in A. Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory. Social cognitive theory suggests that self-efficacy, "peo-ple's judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances " (Bandura, 1986, p. 391), strongly influences the choices people make, the effort they expend, and how
Focus on formative feedback
- Review of Educational Research
, 2008
"... This article reviews the corpus of research on feedback, with a focus on for-mative feedback—defined as information communicated to the learner that is intended to modify his or her thinking or behavior to improve learning. According to researchers, formative feedback should be nonevaluative, sup-po ..."
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Cited by 171 (8 self)
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This article reviews the corpus of research on feedback, with a focus on for-mative feedback—defined as information communicated to the learner that is intended to modify his or her thinking or behavior to improve learning. According to researchers, formative feedback should be nonevaluative, sup-portive, timely, and specific. Formative feedback is usually presented as infor-mation to a learner in response to some action on the learner’s part. It comes in a variety of types (e.g., verification of response accuracy, explanation of the correct answer, hints, worked examples) and can be administered at various times during the learning process (e.g., immediately following an answer, after some time has elapsed). Finally, several variables have been shown to inter-act with formative feedback’s success at promoting learning (e.g., individual characteristics of the learner and aspects of the task). All of these issues are discussed. This review concludes with guidelines for generating formative feedback.
