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687
Stereotype threat and women’s math performance
- Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
, 1999
"... When women perform math, unlike men, they risk being judged by the negative stereotype that women have weaker math ability. We call this predicament stereotype threat and hypothesize that the apprehension it causes may disrupt women’s math performance. In Study 1 we demonstrated that the pattern obs ..."
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Cited by 336 (7 self)
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When women perform math, unlike men, they risk being judged by the negative stereotype that women have weaker math ability. We call this predicament stereotype threat and hypothesize that the apprehension it causes may disrupt women’s math performance. In Study 1 we demonstrated that the pattern observed in the literature that women underperform on difficult (but not easy) math tests was observed among a highly selected sample of men and women. In Study 2 we demonstrated that this difference in performance could be eliminated when we lowered stereotype threat by describing the test as not producing gender differences. However, when the test was described as producing gender differences and stereotype threat was high, women performed substantially worse than equally qualified men did. A third experiment replicated this finding with a less highly selected population and explored the mediation of the effect. The implication that stereotype threat may underlie gender differences in advanced math performance, even This paper was based on a doctoral dissertation completed by Steven J. Spencer under the direction of Claude M. Steele. This research was supported by a National Institute of Mental Health predoctoral
Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice toward Female Leaders
- Psychological Review
, 2002
"... A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that f ..."
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Cited by 294 (4 self)
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A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles. Leadership has been predominantly a male prerogative in cor-porate, political, military, and other sectors of society. Although women have gained increased access to supervisory and middle management positions, they remain quite rare as elite leaders and top executives. To explain this phenomenon, public and scientific discussion has centered on the idea of a “glass ceiling”—a barrier of prejudice and discrimination that excludes women from higher level leadership positions (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995; Morrison, White, & Van Velsor, 1987). To further this discussion, we advance a theory of prejudice toward female lead-ers and test the theory in relation to available empirical research. This integrative theory builds on social psychologists ’ tradition of studying prejudice and stereotyping and industrial–organizational psychologists ’ tradition of studying perceptions of managerial roles. The popularity of the glass ceiling concept may stem from the rarity of women in major leadership posts, despite the presence of equality or near equality of the sexes on many other indicators. A number of statistics thus suggest equality: In the United States, women make up 46 % of all workers (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001b) and 45 % of those in executive, administrative, and managerial occupations (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001a); women possess 51 % of bachelor’s degrees and 45 % of all
The gender similarities hypothesis
- American Psychologist
, 2005
"... The differences model, which argues that males and females are vastly different psychologically, dominates the popular media. Here, the author advances a very different view, the gender similarities hypothesis, which holds that males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variab ..."
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Cited by 192 (3 self)
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The differences model, which argues that males and females are vastly different psychologically, dominates the popular media. Here, the author advances a very different view, the gender similarities hypothesis, which holds that males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables. Results from a review of 46 metaanalyses support the gender similarities hypothesis. Gender differences can vary substantially in magnitude at different ages and depend on the context in which measurement occurs. Overinflated claims of gender differences carry substantial costs in areas such as the workplace and relationships.
The Power of Testing Memory -- Basic Research and Implications for Educational Practice
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, 2006
"... A powerful way of improving one’s memory for material is to be tested on that material. Tests enhance later retention more than additional study of the material, even when tests are given without feedback. This surprising phenomenon is called the testing effect, and although it has been studied by c ..."
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Cited by 183 (28 self)
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A powerful way of improving one’s memory for material is to be tested on that material. Tests enhance later retention more than additional study of the material, even when tests are given without feedback. This surprising phenomenon is called the testing effect, and although it has been studied by cognitive psychologists sporadically over the years, today there is a renewed effort to learn why testing is effective and to apply testing in educational settings. In this article, we selectively review laboratory studies that reveal the power of testing in improving retention and then turn to studies that demonstrate the basic effects in educational settings. We also consider the related concepts of dynamic testing and formative assessment as other means of using tests to improve learning. Finally, we consider some negative consequences of testing that may occur in certain circumstances, though these negative effects are often small and do not cancel out the large positive effects of testing. Frequent testing in the classroom may boost educational achievement at all levels of education.
Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity
- Personality and Social Psychology Review
, 1998
"... Research on African American racial identity has utilized 2 distinct approaches. The mainstream approach hasfocused on universal properties associated with ethnic and racial identities. In contrast, the underground approach hasfocused on documenting the qualitative meaning of being African American, ..."
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Cited by 172 (4 self)
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Research on African American racial identity has utilized 2 distinct approaches. The mainstream approach hasfocused on universal properties associated with ethnic and racial identities. In contrast, the underground approach hasfocused on documenting the qualitative meaning of being African American, with an emphasis on the unique cultural and historical experiences of African Americans. The Multidimensional Model ofRacial Identity (MMRI) represents a synthesis of the strengths of these two approaches. The underlying assumptions associated with the model are explored. The modelproposes 4 dimensions ofAfrican American racial identity: salience, centrality, regard, and ideology. A description of these dimensions is provided along with a discussion ofhow they interact to influence behavior at the level ofthe event. We argue that the MMRI has the potential to make contributions to traditional research objectives of both approaches, as well as to provide the impetus to explore new questions. African Americans ' experiences in the United States differ significantly from those of members of other
An organizing framework for collective identity: Articulation and significance of multidimensionality
- Psychological Bulletin
, 2004
"... The authors offer a framework for conceptualizing collective identity that aims to clarify and make distinctions among dimensions of identification that have not always been clearly articulated. Elements of collective identification included in this framework are self-categorization, evaluation, imp ..."
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Cited by 156 (0 self)
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The authors offer a framework for conceptualizing collective identity that aims to clarify and make distinctions among dimensions of identification that have not always been clearly articulated. Elements of collective identification included in this framework are self-categorization, evaluation, importance, attachment and sense of interdependence, social embeddedness, behavioral involvement, and content and meaning. For each element, the authors take note of different labels that have been used to identify what appear to be conceptually equivalent constructs, provide examples of studies that illustrate the concept, and suggest measurement approaches. Further, they discuss the potential links between elements and outcomes and how context moderates these relationships. The authors illustrate the utility of the multidimensional organizing framework by analyzing the different configuration of elements in 4 major theories of identification. In this article we put forward a general conceptual framework for the analysis of collective identity. Although not proposing a theory per se, we offer a strategy by which individual theorists might better articulate the assumptions and the components of their theoretical formulations. In doing so, theorists should be better able to identify points of agreement and dissension between mod-els and to move forward to the development of more integrative theories. It is our belief that by carefully articulating the multiple individual-level elements that constitute collective identification, we arrive in a better position to analyze processes and predict outcomes of identification. In taking on this task, we do not assume that there is a single, consensual definition of collective identity. Indeed, as a number of
Intellectual performance and ego depletion: Role of the self in logical reasoning and other information processing
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 2003
"... Some complex thinking requires active guidance by the self, but simpler mental activities do not. Depletion of the self’s regulatory resources should therefore impair the former and not the latter. Resource depletion was manipulated by having some participants initially regulate attention (Studies 1 ..."
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Cited by 142 (22 self)
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Some complex thinking requires active guidance by the self, but simpler mental activities do not. Depletion of the self’s regulatory resources should therefore impair the former and not the latter. Resource depletion was manipulated by having some participants initially regulate attention (Studies 1 and 3) or emotion (Study 2). As compared with no-regulation participants who did not perform such exercises, depleted participants performed worse at logic and reasoning (Study 1), cognitive extrapolation (Study 2), and a test of thoughtful reading comprehension (Study 3). The same manipulations failed to cause decrements on a test of general knowledge (Study 2) or on memorization and recall of nonsense syllables (Study 3). Successful performance at complex thinking may therefore rely on limited regulatory resources. A major purpose of the self is to exert control over responses, ranging from overt behavior to inner processes. As the agent or executive function, the self is responsible for acts of volition, including making choices, overriding incipient responses, being active instead of passive, and replacing one response with another. Recent findings have suggested that active self-control can be
Reducing the effects of stereotype threat on African American college students by shaping theories of intelligence
- Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
, 2002
"... African American college students tend to obtain lower grades than their White counterparts, even when they enter college with equivalent test scores. Past research suggests that negative stereotypes impugning Black students ’ intellectual abilities play a role in this underperformance. Awareness of ..."
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Cited by 140 (4 self)
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African American college students tend to obtain lower grades than their White counterparts, even when they enter college with equivalent test scores. Past research suggests that negative stereotypes impugning Black students ’ intellectual abilities play a role in this underperformance. Awareness of these stereotypes can psychologically threaten African Americans, a phenomenon known as “stereotype threat ” (Steele & Aronson, 1995), which can in turn provoke responses that impair both academic performance and psychological engagement with academics. An experiment was performed to test a method of helping students resist these responses to stereotype threat. Specifically, students in the experimental condition of the experiment were encouraged to see intelligence—the object of the stereotype—as a malleable rather than fixed capacity. This mind-set was predicted to make students ’ performances less vulnerable to stereotype threat and help them maintain their psychological engagement with academics, both of which could help boost their college grades. Results were consistent with predictions. The African American students (and, to some degree, the White students) encouraged to view intelligence as malleable reported greater enjoyment of the academic process, greater academic engagement, and obtained higher grade point averages than their counterparts in two control groups. © 2001 Elsevier Science (USA) The traditional model [of intelligence] may be a cause of rather than a potential answer to educational problems, in particular, and societal problems, in general. —Robert Sternberg (1998)
The psychology of self-defense: self-affirmation theory
- Advances in Experimental Social Psychology
, 2006
"... In major league baseball, a hitter could have a long and productive career by maintaining a.300 average, that is, by getting a base hit 30 % of the time. A great deal of money could be earned and fame accrued. Yet the other 70% of the time, this player would have failed. The vast majority of attempt ..."
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Cited by 135 (10 self)
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In major league baseball, a hitter could have a long and productive career by maintaining a.300 average, that is, by getting a base hit 30 % of the time. A great deal of money could be earned and fame accrued. Yet the other 70% of the time, this player would have failed. The vast majority of attempts to
Stereotype susceptibility: Identity salience and shifts in quantitative performance.
- Psychological Science,
, 1999
"... Abstract-Recent Recent studies have found that the implicit activation of a sociocultural stereotype can influence the performance of the stereotyped individual. In this article, we expand the work on the powerful effects of automatic and unconscious activation (see, e.g., Past research on self-s ..."
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Cited by 134 (8 self)
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Abstract-Recent Recent studies have found that the implicit activation of a sociocultural stereotype can influence the performance of the stereotyped individual. In this article, we expand the work on the powerful effects of automatic and unconscious activation (see, e.g., Past research on self-stereotyping has focused almost exclusively on only one dimension of participants' identity. For example, both A second neglected issue in the research on self-stereotyping is the effect of positive stereotypes. Focusing only on the negative effects of stereotypes associated with particular social categories means that critical dynamics of how stereotypes affect individuals in the real world are ignored. In the studies we report here, we considered both positive and negative stereotypes associated with different identities that can coexist within an individual. Can implicit activation of different dimensions of identity lead individuals to access and behave in accordance with different stereotypes that might help or hinder their academic performance? We examined whether subtly activating different self-stereotypes would affect the quantitative performance of AsianAmerican women. A common cultural stereotype of women, supported by data on test performance, is that they have inferior quantitative skills compared with men STUDY 1 Overview In Study 1, we asked undergraduate Asian-American women to take a quantitative test. We hypothesized that their performance would be depressed when their female identity was made salient and enhanced when their Asian identity was made salient, compared with a control group of Asian-American women for whom no particular identity was made salient. 1 Identity salience was manipulated by having participants complete different versions of a questionnaire about residential life at their university. Participants randomly assigned to the female-identity-salient condition had to indicate their sex and answer questions related to their gender identity. Participants in the Asian-identity-salient condition were asked to indicate their ethnicity and to answer questions related to their ethnic identity. In the no-identity-salient control condition, participants were not asked to indicate their gender or their ethnicity, but were asked to answer questions unrelated to either identity. The questionnaires were constructed to make salient the identity of interest (ethnic or gender) implicitly,
