The theory of strategic groups assumes that strategic groups are built when new resources become available as a result of social change. This paper examines the extent to which the process of globalization creates new chances for the acquisition of resources, which also leads to the creation of global strategic groups. Knowledge is identified as one of such strategic resources that makes it possible for strategic groups to be formed. This paper attempts to prove how experts, in particular development experts, form such a strategic group which applies knowledge gained from experience and action strategies to obtain resources for themselves and for their projects4 1. Globalization of Strategic Groups The main elements of the theory of strategic groups have already been established and used in several studies. There has also been a critical discussion of the theory. This discussion has, however, been rather argumentative and based less on the result of empirical research work conducted (Neelsen 1988; Berner 2001). According to the original theory, any time resources within a society become available as a result of a power vacuum or through technological progress, organizational change or a change in the geopolitical structures, there is the

This paper examines the extent to which the process of globalization creates new chances for the acquisition of resources, which also leads to the creation of global strategic groups. Knowledge is identified as one of such strategic resources that makes it possible for strategic groups to be formed. This paper attempts to prove how experts, in particular development experts, form such a strategic group which applies knowledge gained from experience and action strategies to obtain resources for themselves and for their projects 5 1. Globalization of Strategic Groups The main elements of the theory of strategic groups have already been established and used in several studies. There has also been a critical discussion of the theory. This discussion has, however, been rather argumentative and based less on the result of empirical research work conducted (Neelsen 1988; Berner 2001). According to the original theory, any time resources within a society become available as a result of a power vacuum or through technological progress, organizational change or a change in the geopolitical structures, there is the possibility that new strategic groups will be formed. The newly-formed strategic groups will try to acquire these resources in the long term (Evers 1973; Evers and Schiel 1988). The group may form a coalition with other groups or expand its area of operation. This means that there is usually a hybridization of the group's strategy of acquiring resources. One such new constellation that involved the release of resources, with a corresponding buildup of a new strategic group, was the transition from colonial rule to the formation of nation-states. This constellation has been researched into and analyzed in many studies with the theory of strategic groups (Bierschenk 19...

With globalisation and knowledge-based production, firms may cooperate on a global scale, outsource parts of their administrative or productive units and negate location altogether. The extremely low transaction costs of data, information and knowledge seem to invalidate the theory of agglomeration and the spatial clustering of firms, going back to the classical work by Alfred Weber (1868-1958) and Alfred Marshall (1842-1924), who emphasized the microeconomic benefits of industrial collocation. This paper will argue against this view and show why the growth of knowledge societies will rather increase than decrease the relevance of location by creating knowledge clusters and knowledge hubs. A knowledge cluster is a local innovation system organized around universities, research institutions and firms which intend to drive innovations and create new industries. Knowledge hubs are localities with a knowledge architecture of high internal and external networking and knowledge sharing capabilities. Countries or regions form an epistemic landscape of knowledge assets, structured by knowledge hubs, knowledge gaps and areas of high or low knowledge intensity. The paper will focus on the internal dynamics of knowledge clusters and knowledge hubs and show why clustering takes place despite globalisation and the rapid growth of ICT. The basic argument that firms and their delivery chains attempt to reduce transport (transaction) costs by choosing the same location is still valid for most

The paper analyses a recent collaborative knowledge transfer project between the Republic of Singapore and the Republic of Indonesia across the Straits of Malacca. The initiative was aimed at supplying the city state at the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula with green vegetables from Riau, Indonesia, and to provide technical assistance to Riau farmers on protected cultivation and post-harvest technologies. We reconstruct the bilateral evolution of the vegetable project in the context of the longstanding relationships between both countries vis-à-vis Singapore’s reliance on food imports; identify the strategic partner organizations on both sides and their motivations to engage in this cross-country collaboration; present the project deliverables and outcomes; specify the type of knowledge transferred,

www.zef.de Looking East, looking West: Penang as a Knowledge Hub Penang has always been a focal point, absorbing knowledge (and popular culture) from civilizations to the East and West. In modern Penang the pattern of cultural contacts has changed over time. Research institutes and universities in Penang cooperate with foreign partners to produce research papers and reports. Based on an analysis of joint research output, the changing international position of Penang as an emerging research hub will be analysed. The paper will show that international cooperation has increased considerably between 1970 and 2010, but that there has also been a remarkable shift from European, Australian and American partners to East Asian and to South Asian partners. The latter will be analysed in greater detail to show the development of Penang as an increasingly important Asian knowledge hub. One of the highlighted results of our paper will be the increasing importance of research ties across the Indian Ocean. Keywords: Science Cooperation, Knowledge Hub, Malaysia. Contents

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Water supply and sanitation provision has been at the core of international attention reflected in various international directives and declarations over the past three decades. How are such international priorities domesticated in the national and local policy agenda? This paper specifically assesses the Nigerian policy trend and practices in relation to water supply and sanitation coverage over the past ten decades. The review observed that the Nigerian water and sanitation policy environment is characterized by: a) too many short‐lived policies without corresponding action; b) excessive and opportunistic use of some international policy instruments; c) very many agencies with none effectively in charge; d) unrealistic assumptions of situations and; e) poor implementation practices. Although this trend of observation seems a general problem in developing countries, the paper argues that the Nigerian case looks exceptional, to a large extent, given the peculiarities of ethnic politics, long years of military rule which undermined the evolution and development of necessary institutions in the water and sanitation sector, official corruption, among several other factors. These factors and others contribute to making public water supply and sanitation services inaccessible to the poor. Given the nature of observations, the review concludes with some necessary recommendations.