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What’s wrong with cross-cultural comparisons of subjective Likert scales? The reference-group problem
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 2002
"... Social comparison theory maintains that people think about themselves compared with similar others. Those in one culture, then, compare themselves with different others and standards than do those in another culture, thus potentially confounding cross-cultural comparisons. A pilot study and Study 1 ..."
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Cited by 143 (15 self)
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Social comparison theory maintains that people think about themselves compared with similar others. Those in one culture, then, compare themselves with different others and standards than do those in another culture, thus potentially confounding cross-cultural comparisons. A pilot study and Study 1 demonstrated the problematic nature of this reference-group effect: Whereas cultural experts agreed that East Asians are more collectivistic than North Americans, cross-cultural comparisons of trait and attitude measures failed to reveal such a pattern. Study 2 found that manipulating reference groups enhanced the expected cultural differences, and Study 3 revealed that people from different cultural backgrounds within the same country exhibited larger differences than did people from different countries. Crosscultural comparisons using subjective Likert scales are compromised because of different reference groups. Possible solutions are discussed.
Does culture influence what and how we think? Effects of priming individualism and collectivism
- Psychological Bulletin
, 2008
"... Do differences in individualism and collectivism influence values, self-concept content, relational assumptions, and cognitive style? On the one hand, the cross-national literature provides an impressively consistent picture of the predicted systematic differences; on the other hand, the nature of t ..."
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Cited by 81 (6 self)
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Do differences in individualism and collectivism influence values, self-concept content, relational assumptions, and cognitive style? On the one hand, the cross-national literature provides an impressively consistent picture of the predicted systematic differences; on the other hand, the nature of the evidence is inconclusive. Cross-national evidence is insufficient to argue for a causal process, and comparative data cannot specify if effects are due to both individualism and collectivism, only individualism, only collectivism, or other factors (including other aspects of culture). To address these issues, the authors conducted a meta-analysis of the individualism and collectivism priming literature, with follow-up moderator analyses. Effect sizes were moderate for relationality and cognition, small for self-concept and values, robust across priming methods and dependent variables, and consistent in direction and size with cross-national effects. Results lend support to a situated model of culture in which cross-national differences are not static but dynamically consistent due to the chronic and moment-to-moment salience of individualism and collectivism. Examination of the unique effects of individualism and collectivism versus other cultural factors (e.g., honor, power) awaits the availability of research that primes these factors.
The cultural mind: Environmental decision making and cultural modeling within and across populations
- Psychological Review
, 2005
"... Abstract. This paper describes a cross-cultural research project on the relation between how people conceptualize nature (their mental models) and how they act in it. Mental models of nature differ dramatically among and within populations living in the same area and engaged in more or less the same ..."
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Cited by 66 (3 self)
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Abstract. This paper describes a cross-cultural research project on the relation between how people conceptualize nature (their mental models) and how they act in it. Mental models of nature differ dramatically among and within populations living in the same area and engaged in more or less the same activities. This has novel implications for environmental decision making and management, including dealing with commons problems. Our research also offers a distinct perspective on models of culture, and a unified approach to the study of culture and cognition. We argue that cultural transmission and formation does not consist primarily in shared rules or norms, but in complex distributions of causally-connected representations across minds in interaction with the environment. The cultural stability and diversity of these representations often derives from rich, biologically-prepared mental mechanisms that limit variation to readily transmissible psychological forms. This framework addresses a series of methodological issues, such as the limitations of conceiving culture to be a well-defined system or bounded entity, an independent variable, or an internalized component of minds. 2 I. Introduction.
Cultural affordances and emotional experience: Socially engaging and disengaging emotions in Japan and the United States
- Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
, 2006
"... Cultural affordances and emotional experience: ..."
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The Weirdest People in the World?
"... To be published in Behavioral and Brain Sciences (in press) ..."
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Cited by 61 (1 self)
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To be published in Behavioral and Brain Sciences (in press)
Individualism-collectivism and group creativity
- Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
, 2006
"... Individualism-Collectivism and Group Creativity Current research in organizational behavior suggests that organizations should adopt collectivistic values because they promote cooperation and productivity, while individualistic values should be avoided because they incite destructive conflict and op ..."
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Cited by 57 (6 self)
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Individualism-Collectivism and Group Creativity Current research in organizational behavior suggests that organizations should adopt collectivistic values because they promote cooperation and productivity, while individualistic values should be avoided because they incite destructive conflict and opportunism. In this paper, we highlight one possible benefit of individualistic values that has not previously been considered. Because individualistic values can encourage uniqueness, such values might be useful when creativity is a desired outcome. Although we hypothesize that individualistic groups should be more creative than collectivistic groups, we also consider an important competing hypothesis: Given that collectivistic groups are more responsive to norms, they might be more creative than individualistic groups when given explicit instructions to be creative. The results did not support this competing hypothesis and instead show that individualistic groups instructed to be creative are more creative than collectivistic groups given the same instructions. These results suggest that individualistic values
Individualism: A Valid and Important Dimension of Cultural Differences between Nations
- Personality and Social Psychology Review
, 2005
"... the measurement of individualism and collectivism. Studies using Hofstede’s individ-ualism scores show little convergent validity with more recent measures of individual-ism and collectivism. We propose that the lack of convergent validity is due to national differences in response styles. Whereas H ..."
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Cited by 56 (2 self)
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the measurement of individualism and collectivism. Studies using Hofstede’s individ-ualism scores show little convergent validity with more recent measures of individual-ism and collectivism. We propose that the lack of convergent validity is due to national differences in response styles. Whereas Hofstede statistically controlled for response styles, Oyserman et al.’s meta-analysis relied on uncorrected ratings. Data from an international student survey demonstrated convergent validity between Hofstede’s individualism dimension and horizontal individualism when response styles were sta-tistically controlled, whereas uncorrected scores correlated highly with the individu-alism scores in Oyserman et al.’s meta-analysis. Uncorrected horizontal individual-ism scores and meta-analytic individualism scores did not correlate significantly with nations ’ development, whereas corrected horizontal individualism scores and Hofstede’s individualism dimension were significantly correlated with development. This pattern of results suggests that individualism is a valid construct for cross-cul-tural comparisons, but that the measurement of this construct needs improvement. The development of cross-cultural psychology is
Correlates of authoritarian parenting in individualist and collectivist cultures and implications for understanding the transmission of values
- Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
, 2001
"... Mothers and children between the ages of 7 and 12, from individualist (Western European) and collectivist (Egyptian, Iranian, Indian, and Pakistani) backgrounds, completed assess-ments of children’s self-esteem, maternal authoritarianism, and mothers ’ thoughts and feel-ings about their children. Co ..."
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Cited by 42 (0 self)
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Mothers and children between the ages of 7 and 12, from individualist (Western European) and collectivist (Egyptian, Iranian, Indian, and Pakistani) backgrounds, completed assess-ments of children’s self-esteem, maternal authoritarianism, and mothers ’ thoughts and feel-ings about their children. Collectivist mothers endorsed authoritarian parenting more than did individualist mothers but did not feel or think more negatively about their children, and collectivist children were not lower in self-esteem. Within both groups, maternal negative affect and cognition were associated with lower self-esteem in children. However, maternal authoritarianism was associated with maternal negative emotion and cognition only in the individualist group. The results suggest that maternal negative thoughts and feelings, asso-ciated with authoritarianism in individualist but not collectivist groups, may be more detrimental to children’s self-esteem than is authoritarianism in and of itself.
Reclaiming the individual from Hofstede’s ecological analysis – a 20-year odyssey: comment on Oyserman et al
- 2002)’, Psychological Bulletin
, 2002
"... Americans are more individualistic and less collectivistic than persons from most other ethnic groups. ..."
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Cited by 42 (0 self)
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Americans are more individualistic and less collectivistic than persons from most other ethnic groups.
Taking It Out of Context: Collaborating within and across . . .
"... As new communications media foster international collaborations, we would be remiss in overlooking cultural differences when assessing them. In this study, 24 pairs in three cultural groupings---American-American (AA), ChineseChinese (CC) and American-Chinese (AC) --worked on two decision-making ta ..."
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Cited by 42 (11 self)
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As new communications media foster international collaborations, we would be remiss in overlooking cultural differences when assessing them. In this study, 24 pairs in three cultural groupings---American-American (AA), ChineseChinese (CC) and American-Chinese (AC) --worked on two decision-making tasks, one face-to-face and the other via IM. Drawing upon prior research, we predicted differences in conversational efficiency, conversational content, interaction quality, persuasion, and performance. The quantitative results combined with conversation analysis suggest that the groups viewed the task differently---AA pairs as an exercise in situation-specific compromise; CC as consensus-reaching. Cultural differences were reduced but not eliminated in the IM condition.
